CCUS integration in hydrogen production Technological advances sectoral applications and future pers

Abstract

Keywords: Blue Hydrogen; Carbon Capture; Utilization and Storage; Steam Methane Reforming (SMR); Hydrogen Economy; Energy Transition.

Introduction

One of the most important global decisions to prevent climate change is the Paris Agreement and the European Green Deal. These agreements make it necessary to reduce carbon in the energy sector. Today, energy production causes about 73% of global greenhouse gas emissions [1]. This makes the energy sector one of the main reasons for the climate crisis. In this context, hydrogen becomes important because it is a flexible energy carrier and can be produced in different ways [2]. Hydrogen is categorized based on the carbon intensity of its production process. Grey hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels, primarily natural gas, through SMR without any carbon mitigation. Blue hydrogen follows a similar pathway but incorporates CCUS technologies to significantly reduce associated emissions. In contrast, green hydrogen is generated via water electrolysis using renewable electricity, resulting in minimal environmental impact. These classifications reflect the varying environmental performance of hydrogen technologies and emphasize the need for a shift towards low-carbon and renewable options in line with global decarbonization goals. These types show that hydrogen can have very different environmental effects, depending on how it is made. Today, about 95% of hydrogen is produced as grey hydrogen, which uses natural gas with SMR [3]. This method produces about 9–12 tons of CO₂ for every 1 ton of hydrogen [4]. This makes grey hydrogen have a large carbon footprint. Therefore, it is not a clean energy source. To solve this problem, a better method called blue hydrogen is developed. Blue hydrogen uses the same SMR method, but it also includes CCUS technologies. In this way, the CO₂ created during production is either stored underground or used in industry [5]. According to Roy et al. (2025), blue hydrogen can reduce the carbon footprint by 56% to 90%. This means blue hydrogen emits about

10. Gigawatt (GW) of electrolysis capacity and grow its blue

hydrogen sector by 2030 [3]. In Türkiye, the National Hydrogen Strategy (2023) says that by 2035, 70% of hydrogen will be green. But during the transition period, using natural gas infrastructure and CCUS technologies makes blue hydrogen very important [12].

Post-Combustion Capture Post-combustion capture captures CO₂ from the flue gases subsequent to the combustion of fossil fuels. It prefers the use of chemical solvents like monoethanolamine (MEA) for CO₂ absorption, making it very compatible with present infrastructure. Some of the advantages are compatibility with present facilities and easy integration with the existing setup (Fig. 2) [13,15]. It is disadvantageous as it is energy-intensive because of the need to regenerate solvents, resulting in high operating costs [15].

This study focuses on blue hydrogen as a key solution to reduce carbon in energy systems. It will evaluate the technical, economical and environmental results of CCUS technologies in blue hydrogen. The study will also examine how Türkiye and the world can use blue hydrogen in their energy transition policies. Different scenarios will be used to show the emission reduction potential of blue hydrogen. The goal is to give strategic suggestions for global and local energy change.

CCUS Technologies USED In Hydrogen Production

CCUS technologies primarily entail capturing the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from industrial processes and fuel combustion, utilizing captured CO₂ for some industrial purposes and then storing the remainder underground securely. The primary technologies for carbon capture are post-combustion, pre-combustion, and oxy-fuel combustion technologies with variations in advantages as well as limitations [13,14].

Pre-Combustion Capture Pre-combustion capture converts fossil fuels into synthesis gas (syngas), followed by a reaction that separates CO₂ and hydrogen. This technology is efficient for integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants, enabling the direct use of hydrogen as a low-carbon fuel [13,16]. Advantages include high efficiency in CO₂ separation and suitability for hydrogen production. Disadvantages include high initial investment and complex infrastructure, limiting its deployment primarily to new plants [16]. Oxy-fuel Combustion Oxy-fuel combustion involves burning fossil fuels in pure oxygen instead of air, producing a highly concentrated stream of CO₂ after condensing water vapor. Advantages include simplified CO₂ capture and high purity of captured gas [13,17]. However, this method requires energy-intensive oxygen production, usually by cryogenic air separation, which significantly increases operating costs. Additionally, the technology poses challenges such as material corrosion and operational complexity [17].

Figure 2. Simplified process diagrams of major CO₂ capture methods: (a) Post-combustion, (b) Pre-combustion, (c) Oxy-fuel combustion. (Redrawn and adapted by the authors based on source [63]).

Clean Energy Technol J, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 50-61, December, 2025

Alternative Technologies Emerging CCUS technologies include membrane-based separation, chemical looping combustion (CLC), cryogenic separation, ionic liquid absorption, electrochemical capture, and solid sorbent adsorption (e.g., metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), zeolites). These methods typically offer lower energy requirements and smaller environmental footprints compared to conventional methods, although they often require further development to become economically feasible at scale [18,19].

and blue hydrogen, in particular, are emerging as key tools in global decarbonization efforts. The sector’s long term viability depends not only on innovation but also on strong policy support, infrastructure investment, and financial incentives. This section outlines the future direction of hydrogen production, emphasizing global targets, strategic frameworks, and links to carbon reduction technologies like CCUS.

CCUS Implementation in Türkiye Türkiye has shown increasing interest in CCUS technologies, particularly after ratifying the Paris Agreement and setting a net-zero emissions target for 2053 [20]. Although commercial-scale deployment is currently limited, TÜBİTAK-supported national projects increasingly focus on CO₂ conversion into value-added products such as biofuels and minerals [20,21]. The EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) further encourages Türkiye to develop CCUS infrastructure in alignment with both climate and trade goals [14,21]. However, the discussion on Türkiye’s CCUS potential has so far remained superficial. Specific data regarding regional CO₂ storage capacities, techno-economic feasibility studies, and measurable outputs from TÜBİTAK-funded or other national pilot projects are currently underrepresented in the literature. For instance, regional geological surveys conducted by MTA and TÜBİTAK suggest that formations such as the Tuz Gölü basin and Diyarbakır–Batman region may offer cumulative CO₂ storage potentials exceeding 1.5 Gt [22,23]. Additionally, the TÜBİTAK 1001 Project titled “Integrated Carbon Capture and Bio-methanation in Anaerobic Systems” (Project Code: 120Y156), as well as Borusan’s pilot CO₂ mineralization facility in Gemlik, have reported early techno-economic data including capture costs below $60/ton CO₂ and energy penalties under 15% [24,25]. Including such information provides a more comprehensive perspective on Türkiye’s readiness and potential for CCUS deployment and integration into national decarbonization strategies. Global Implementation of CCUS Several countries have advanced CCUS deployment. Notable examples include the Boundary Dam project in Canada, Petra Nova in the USA, and Sleipner in Norway—demonstrating real-world feasibility and climate benefits [26,13]. However, challenges persist regarding cost, infrastructure, and verification of long-term storage. For Türkiye, proactive industrial collaboration and supportive policy frameworks will be key to aligning with international climate and economic targets.

Future Plans In The Hydrogen Production Sector

Hydrogen production is rapidly evolving as countries pursue low carbon pathways to meet climate goals. Green

Strategic Roadmaps and Global Alignment In line with the Paris Agreement and COP commitments, many nations have introduced national hydrogen plans with clear emission reduction goals and production targets. These roadmaps increasingly integrate hydrogen across sectors such as energy, transport, and industry, reflecting a shared vision of its role in a sustainable energy future.The International Energy Agency (IEA) projects that global hydrogen demand could reach 530 million tonnes by 2050 under its Net Zero Emissions (NZE) scenario, with more than 60% produced from renewable sources [27] as illustrated in Figure 3. The European Union (EU), through its Hydrogen Strategy and REPowerEU plan, aims to install 40 GW of electrolyzer capacity within its borders by 2030 and produce 10 million tonnes of renewable hydrogen annually. This will be complemented by an equivalent volume of hydrogen imports from partner countries. National strategies mirror this ambition. Germany plans to reach

10. GW of electrolyzer capacity by 2030, while France and

Spain are targeting 6.5 GW and 4 GW, respectively [28]. In Asia, Japan’s Green Growth Strategy sets the goal of establishing a full hydrogen supply chain by 2030, supported by substantial public investment. China, the world’s largest hydrogen producer, is actively investing in blue and green hydrogen projects, particularly in industrial hubs. Australia and the United States are also leading the transition. Australia aims to develop up to 50 GW of electrolyzer capacity, positioning itself as a global hydrogen exporter [29], while the U.S. government has initiated the Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs (H₂Hubs) program with an $8 billion budget under the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law [30]. Capacity Targets and Infrastructure Development The scalability of hydrogen production relies on a dramatic expansion of electrolyzer manufacturing, renewable electricity generation, water supply, and transport logistics. For instance, the IEA estimates that reaching global decarbonization targets will require the deployment of over 850 GW of electrolyzers by 2050, a more than 100-fold increase from current levels [30]. Countries are accordingly investing in grid upgrades, port facilities, hydrogen pipelines, and hydrogen-ready industrial zones [31]. In the EU, initiatives such as the European Hydrogen Backbone (EHB) project propose the development of over 40,000 kilometers of dedicated hydrogen transport pipe-

Clean Energy Technol J, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 50-61, December, 2025

Figure 3. IEA – Net Zero 2050 Roadmap [30]. lines across 28 countries by 2040 [32]. Similarly, Germany is advancing a Hydrogen Core Network that will connect production sites to industrial demand centers. In theUSA, the H₂Hubs are designed not only to establish regional hydrogen markets but also to enable cross-sector integration between industry, mobility, and power generation [30]. Policy and Financial Mechanisms The realization of hydrogen’s potential depends heavily on economic viability and policy support. A variety of mechanisms have been introduced to stimulate investment and de-risk early-stage projects. In the EU, the Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), launched in 2005 and revised in 2023, has raised the cost of carbon to over €85 per tonne, improving the competitiveness of low-carbon hydrogen [33]. Innovation Funds, State Aid Guidelines, and Carbon Contracts for Difference (CCfDs), introduced gradually since 2020, further incentivize green and blue hydrogen production by guaranteeing revenue streams or offsetting operational costs. In the U.S., the 45V production tax credit, introduced under the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) in 2022, provides up to $3/kg of clean hydrogen produced depending on life-cycle emissions, effectively making green hydrogen cost-competitive with fossil-derived hydrogen [30]. In addition, the 45Q tax credit, first enacted in 2008 and expanded in 2022, provides $85 per tonne of CO₂ captured and stored, directly supporting blue hydrogen projects integrated with CCUS [32].

Asia is also rapidly mobilizing capital. Japan has pledged $13.5 billion in subsidies for hydrogen infrastructure since 2021, while South Korea and China are combining industrial policy with public-private partnerships to scale hydrogen supply chains. Financial institutions are also stepping in; multilateral banks and green investment funds are increasingly supporting hydrogen projects in emerging economies. Integration with CCUS and Transition Pathways Although green hydrogen remains the ultimate objective, blue hydrogen produced through SMR combined with CCUS is widely viewed as a practical transition solution. As noted by the Hydrogen Council (2023), blue hydrogen can cut CO₂ emissions by up to 90% compared to conventional grey hydrogen, making it particularly relevant for gas-rich regions [34]. Countries such as Canada, Norway, and the UK have incorporated blue hydrogen into their national strategies, taking advantage of existing gas networks and geological CO₂ storage options. Flagship CCUS projects like Norway’s Northern Lights and the UK’s Net Zero Teesside are setting examples by integrating hydrogen production with advanced carbon capture systems. Additionally, alternatives like turquoise hydrogen from methane pyrolysis and hydrogen from nuclear-powered electrolysis are gaining attention as region-specific, low-carbon solutions that may bridge the gap toward full decarbonization.

Clean Energy Technol J, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 50-61, December, 2025

Potential Of CCUS Technologies In The Hydrogen Production Sector

Technological and Operational Improvements Currently, hydrogen is predominantly produced from fossil fuels, namely brown and grey hydrogen. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA-2018), approximately 48% of global hydrogen production is derived from natural gas, 30% from oil, and 18% from coal. Only about 4% is generated through electrolysis using electricity from the grid or renewable energy sources, which is referred to as green hydrogen. Hydrogen is currently utilized across various industrial sectors, including chemical production (e.g., methanol, ammonia), refining processes (such as hydrogenation and hydrocracking), metal processing, aerospace, food, and glass industries [35]. In addition to methanol synthesis, hydrogen plays a pivotal role across a range of industrial processes where its high reactivity and energy density are leveraged. Ammonia production, primarily via the Haber–Bosch process, remains one of the most hydrogen-intensive applications globally. This process involves the reaction of nitrogen, extracted from ambient air, with hydrogen under elevated pressures and temperatures in the presence of an iron-based catalyst, and it is fundamental to global fertilizer manufacturing [36]. In the petroleum refining sector, hydrogen is extensively employed in hydrocracking and hydrotreating units to upgrade heavy hydrocarbon fractions, eliminate impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, and metals, and generate cleaner transportation fuels. Moreover, hydrogenation reactions are widely utilized in the chemical industry to saturate unsaturated organic compounds, thereby enhancing the chemical stability, performance, and shelf life of end products [37]. These hydrogen-driven applications are underpinned by mature and well-established technologies characterized by high Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs). As the global energy system transitions toward low-carbon solutions, these conventional hydrogen-based processes are increasingly being re-evaluated for integration with carbon capture technologies and green hydrogen alternatives to mitigate their environmental impact and contribute to industrial decarbonization [38,39]. Among its various uses, methanol is a “bridge” molecule that enables both the chemical fixation of CO2 and the practical transportation and storage of H2. This dual function makes it a strategic intermediate for both carbon management and renewable energy storage/distribution. Methanol (MeOH) is recognized as a key feedstock in the petroleum, chemical, and energy industries. It serves as a fuel in fuel cells, gasoline blending, combustion engines, and marine applications, while also acting as a precursor in the production of acetic acid, formaldehyde, olefins, and synthetic fibers. Owing to its versatile applications, global demand for methanol increased by approximately 4% between

2018 and 2023 [40]. Additionally, due to growing concerns about climate change and increasing interest in hydrogen as a clean energy carrier, methanol has emerged as a viable medium for hydrogen storage and transport. It can be synthesized via a single-step catalytic reaction using CO₂ and H₂ as reactants, allowing for the chemical fixation of CO₂. When derived from captured CO₂ emissions, the resulting product is referred to as blue methanol. Global methanol demand is projected to grow from 100 million tonnes in 2020 to 500 million tonnes by 2050 [35, 40]. Methanol can be classified as either high or low carbon intensity, depending on the feedstock and associated emissions. Methanol produced from fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas, without carbon capture or renewable inputs (i.e., brown and grey methanol), is typically categorized as high-carbon. In contrast, methanol derived from renewable energy, fossil sources with carbon capture, or a combination of both (green and blue methanol), is regarded as a low-carbon alternative. Conventional methanol production is primarily based on SMR, where synthesis gas (H₂, CO, and CO₂) is generated from natural gas. SMR is the most common and cost-effective method for hydrogen production, used by approximately 50% of global hydrogen production facilities. The resulting synthesis gas can be directly utilized in methanol synthesis, potentially meeting up to 90% of global methanol demand. The technology has reached a high maturity level, reflected in its Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of 9 [41]. In the SMR process, methane (CH₄) reacts with steam at high temperatures to produce H₂ and CO. This is followed by the Water-Gas Shift (WGS) reaction, where part of the CO is converted into CO₂ while additional hydrogen is produced (Figure 4). The resulting gas mixture, rich in H₂ and CO₂, is purified using physical or chemical separation techniques and then used for methanol synthesis in appropriate ratios. The proposed process enables the simultaneous production of both H₂ and CO₂ from natural gas, which are directly utilized for methanol synthesis. This way, carbon from fossil sources is chemically bound in the product rather than being released into the atmosphere, exemplifying an effective application of CCUS technology. Conventional SMR operates at 800-900 °C and 3-25 bar, requiring partial combustion of natural gas to provide the heat. This reduces energy efficiency and generates additional CO₂ emissions. Electrically heated SMR (e-SMR), on the other hand, reforms hydrocarbons directly with electrical energy by heating the catalytic surfaces by resistance or induction. Using electrical heat instead of combustion eliminates CO₂ emissions from combustion and significantly reduces the carbon intensity of the system [42]. The syngas from the SMR unit is typically directed to gas separation units such as membrane systems, Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) or amine absorption, where H₂ and CO₂ are separated into separate phases.

Clean Energy Technol J, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 50-61, December, 2025

Figure 4. SMR based blue hydrogen and CO2 production [64]. The new generation of zeolite-based membrane technologies in particular offer high H₂ purity and enable the installation of compact integrated systems, significantly improving operational efficiency. Obtaining the separated CO₂ in a separate phase makes it possible to use this gas directly in chemical bonding or capture processes [43, 44]. The CO₂ + H₂ route for methanol synthesis is both kinetically and thermodynamically more challenging compared to the conventional method involving CO; therefore, special catalysts are required. Since the classical Cu/ZnO/Al₂O₃ system can show instability at high pressure and temperature, ZnZrOₓ, In₂O₃-ZrO₂ or Ga-doped alternatives have been developed. For example, In₂O₃-based catalysts exhibit up to 80% CO₂ conversion and over 90% methanol selectivity at 240-270 °C and 30-50 bar conditions. Catalyst choice plays a key role in operational improvements as it directly affects the energy requirements of the process [45]. Since methanol synthesis is exothermic, it is critical to control the heat generated; otherwise catalyst sintering, loss of selectivity or carbon deposition can occur. Micro-channel reactors offer both safe and low energy consumption methanol production using blue hydrogen, with compact designs that provide fast and homogeneous heat transfer [46]. Heat and energy integration is critical in integrated SMR-methanol plants; up to 800 °C synthesis gas heat from the SMR is reused in stages such as the reboiler of the methanol synthesis unit and preheating of feed steam, increasing energy efficiency. In addition, the energy requirements of auxiliary systems such as CO₂ compressors, H₂ transport lines and product condensation units are minimized thanks to the integrated design. Process simulations in the literature show that total process efficiency can be increased to over 70% with such heat recovery strategies [47]. Feasibility and Scalability The success of proposed technologies to achieve carbon emission reduction targets should not only be limited to their technical feasibility, but should also meet the conditions of

economic sustainability and compliance with market conditions. Although CO₂-methanol synthesis integrated with SMR-based hydrogen production seems technically feasible in the short term, its economic feasibility varies significantly depending on project parameters, regional energy costs and carbon regulations. In this context, the investment costs, operating costs, production efficiency and economic return models of the system should be examined in detail. As presented in Table 1., SMR plants at TRL 9 can produce hydrogen at capacities ranging from 200-500 tons per day, while ATR and Partial Oxidation (POx) plants can produce hydrogen at capacities ranging from 500-1000 tons per day, providing flexible solutions for both medium and large industrial needs. SMR processes can be scaled up above a base efficiency of 83% with existing waste heat recovery strategies, while costs ranging from USD 0.9-1.8 per kilogram are supported by the widespread availability and low price of natural gas. Moreover, the availability of global natural gas pipeline and storage infrastructure reduces the need for large-scale infrastructure investment in the commissioning of new plants, lowering capital expenditures (CAPEX) and shortening the payback period. With these characteristics, natural gas reforming technologies stand out as the “what works” option that offers the highest maturity, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. In the coming period, blue hydrogen production with waste heat integration and carbon capture applications will also become significantly widespread.

Results And Discussion

Technical Performance Comparison The technical evaluation of the three selected CCUS technologies—Post-combustion MEA absorption, polymer membrane separation, and oxy-fuel combustion—is summarized in Table 2. MEA absorption achieved the highest capture rate (85–95%) [49] but at a high energy penalty (3.6–3.8

Clean Energy Technol J, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 50-61, December, 2025

Table 1. Comparison of hydrogen production technologies [41,48]. Technology

GJ/t CO₂) [43] and is fully commercial (TRL 9) [50]. Polymer membranes offered moderate to high capture efficiency (60–95 %) [49] with a lower energy demand (0.7–1.5 GJ/t CO₂) [49] but remain at TRL 7–8 [51], indicating ongoing scale-up challenges. Oxy-fuel combustion provided ~90% capture with an energy load of 200–300 kWh/t O₂ (≈0.72–

Conclusion

This study highlights that integrating CCUS technologies into hydrogen production processes can serve as a crucial step in the broader transformation of energy systems. Particularly, the deployment of CCUS within SMR and ATR-based hydrogen production pathways significantly lowers the carbon intensity of hydrogen, providing a realistic and scalable option during the energy transition period. Blue hydrogen, as a result of this integration, presents emission reductions that in some cases reach close to 90% compared to traditional grey hydrogen production. Different capture methods yield varied technical outcomes. While solvent-based systems like MEA absorption deliver high capture rates, they also introduce notable energy costs. On the other hand, membrane-based systems and oxy-fuel combustion offer operational advantages with lower energy demand, making them suitable for targeted industrial use where energy efficiency is a priority. These technological differences suggest that a mix of capture approaches, tailored to specific sectors, could maximize effectiveness. Another key finding is that using captured CO₂ for methanol synthesis creates additional value, both environmentally and economically. This circular approach supports the green transition by converting emissions into useful chemicals and fuels, reducing reliance on fossil-derived inputs. Countries like Türkiye, which already have es-

Clean Energy Technol J, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 50-61, December, 2025

tablished natural gas infrastructure, stand to benefit from this interim strategy. It enables immediate emission cuts while building the technical and institutional foundation for a broader shift to green hydrogen in the long term. Taken together, the results underscore that CCUS-enabled hydrogen systems can act as a bridge—both technologically and strategically—between today’s carbon-intensive landscape and tomorrow’s net-zero ambitions. The dual alignment with energy transition pathways and green transition goals positions blue hydrogen as a critical piece of the decarbonization puzzle.

Data Availability Statement

The authors confirm that the data that supports the findings of this study are available within the article. Raw data that support the finding of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

Conflict Of Interest

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethics

There are no ethical issues with the publication of this manuscript.

Statement On The Use Of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence was not used in the preparation of the article.

References

1. The way forward. Energy Environ Sci 2018;11:1062–
2. International Energy Agency, The Future of Hydro- 1176. [CrossRef] gen, IEA. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/ [15] Wang M, Stephenson P, Ramshaw C. Post-com- the-future-of-hydrogen Accessed on May 13, 2025. bustion CO₂ capture with chemical absorption: A
3. International Renewable Energy Agency, Green review. Chem Eng Res Design 2011;89:1609–1624. Hydrogen: A Key Enabler of the Energy Transition, [CrossRef] IRENA. Available at: https://www.irena.org/publica- [16] U.S. Department of Energy. (2022). Carbon cap- tions, Accessed: Accessed on May 13, 2025. ture, utilization, and storage (CCUS). Available at:
4. Bloomberg New Energy Finance. Global Hydrogen https://www.energy.gov/fecm/carbon-capture-uti- Market Overview, 2023. lization-and-storage-research Accessed on Jan 06,
5. Switzer Manufacturing. Hydrogen Production: Ad- 2026. vantages & Disadvantages of Different Methods. [17] Koç T, Arslan O. A review on the applicability of car- Avaialble at: https://www.switzermfg.com/blog/ bon capture and storage technologies in Turkiye. J hydrogen-production-advantages-disadvantag- Energy Markets Legislation 2022;15:85–102. es-of-different-methods/ Accessed on May 13, 2025. [18] Chalmers University of Technology. 2022. Chemical 60 Clean Energy Technol J, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 50-61, December, 2025 looping research reports. Available at: https://www. [32] U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). 45Q Carbon chalmers.se Accessed on Jan 06, 2026. Capture Tax Credit. 2022. Available at: https://www.
6. AlgaePARC. 2022. Research projects on bio-based energy.gov/fecm/45q-carbon-capture-tax-credit CO₂ capture. https://www.wur.nl/algaeparc Ac- Accessed on May 14, 2025. cessed on Jan 06, 2026. [33] European Environment Agency (EEA). EU Emis-
7. Ministry of Environment and Urbanization of Tur- sions Trading System data viewer. 2023. Available kiye. (2021). Paris Agreement and net zero emis- at: https://www.eea.europa.eu Accessed on May 14, sions target. Available at: https://www.csb.gov.tr/ 2025. paris-anlasmasi-ve-net-sifir-emisyon-hedefi Ac- [34] Hydrogen Council. Hydrogen Insights 2023. Avail- cessed on Jan 06, 2026. able at: https://hydrogencouncil.com/en/hydro-
8. TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Center. R&D activi- gen-insights-2023 Accessed on May 14, 2025. ties on carbon capture and utilization technologies. [35] IRENA. Hydrogen from renewable power. Tech- Ankara: The Scientific and Technological Research nology Outlook for the Energy Transition, Interna- Council of Turkiye (TÜBİTAK), 2022. tional Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. 2018.
9. Maden Tetkik ve Arama Genel Müdürlüğü. Türki- Accessed on April 18, 2025. ye’nin Bölgesel CO₂ Depolama Kapasite Haritası ve [36] Morlanés N, Katikaneni SP, Paglieri SN, Harale A, Jeolojik Uygunluk Raporu. Ankara: MTA Yayınları; Solami B, Sarathy SM, et al. A technological roadmap 2022. to the ammonia energy economy: Current state and
10. Türkiye Bilimsel ve Teknolojik Araştırma Kurumu missing technologies. Chem Eng J 2021;408:127310. (TÜBİTAK) Marmara Araştırma Merkezi. Karbon [CrossRef] Yakalama, Kullanım ve Depolama (CCUS) Tekno- [37] Moradpoor I, Syri S, Santasalo-Aarnio A. Green hy- lojileri Kapsamında Türkiye’nin Teknik Potansiyeli. drogen production for oil refining–Finnish case. Re- Kocaeli: Enerji Enstitüsü Yayını; 2021. new Sustain Energy Rev 2023;175:113159. [CrossRef]
11. Borusan Ar-Ge. Gemlik CO₂ Mineralizasyon Pilot [38] International Energy Agency (IEA). The Future of Tesisi: Teknik ve Ekonomik Değerlendirme Raporu. Hydrogen. 2019. Available at: https://www.iea.org/ İstanbul: Borusan Holding Yayınları; 2023 reports/the-future-of-hydrogen. Accessed on July
12. TÜBİTAK. Integrated Carbon Capture and 21, 2025. Bio-Methanation in Anaerobic Systems (Proje No: [39] International Energy Agency IEA. Achieving Net 120Y156). TUBITAK ARBIS Proje Portalı. 2020. Zero Heavy Industry Sectors. Available at: https:// Availeble at: https://arbis.tubitak.gov.tr Accessed on www.iea.org/reports/achieving-net-zero-heavy-in- Jan 06, 2026. dustry-sectors-in-g7-members. Accessed on July 21,
13. Global CCS Institute. The global status of CCS 2023. 2025. Available at: https://www.globalccsinstitute.com/ [40] Methanol Institute. Methanol price and supply/de- resources/global-status-report/ Accessed on Jan 06, mand. 2025. Available at: https://www.methanol. 2026. org/methanol-price-supply-demand/ Accessed on
14. International Energy Agency (IEA). (2021). Net April 20, 2025 Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy [41] AlHumaidan FS, Halabi MA, Rana MS, Vinoba M. Sector. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/ Blue hydrogen: Current status and future technol- net-zero-by-2050 Accessed on Jan 06, 2026. ogies. Energy Convers Manag 2023;283:116840.
15. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). [CrossRef] (2023). World Energy Transitions Outlook 2023. [42] Wismann ST, Engbæk JS, Vendelbo SB, Bendixen Available at: https://www.irena.org/publications Ac- FB, Eriksen WL, Aasberg-Petersen K, et al. Elec- cessed on Jan 06, 2026. trified methane reforming: A compact approach to
16. Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF). Hydro- greener industrial hydrogen production. Science gen economy outlook. 2023. Available at: https:// 2019;364:756−759. [CrossRef] about.bnef.com/blog/hydrogen-economy-outlook/ [43] Naquash A, Qyyum MA, Chaniago YD, Riaz A, Sial Aceesed on May 14, 2025. NR, Islam M, et al. Membrane-and-Cryogenic-As-
17. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Regional Clean sisted Hydrogen Separation and Purification Pro- Hydrogen Hubs. 2023. Available at: https://www. cess. Energy Proceed 2021;24:0241. [CrossRef] energy.gov/oced/regional-clean-hydrogen-hubs Ac- [44] Naquash A, Qyyum MA, Chaniago YD, Riaz A, Ye- cessed on May 14, 2025. hia F, Lim H, et al. Separation and purification of
18. European Hydrogen Backbone (EHB). (2023). EHB syngas-derived hydrogen: A comparative evaluation vision. Available at: https://www.ehb.eu/ Accessed of membrane-and cryogenic-assisted approaches. on May 14, 2025. Chemosphere 2023;313:137420. [CrossRef] Clean Energy Technol J, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 50-61, December, 2025 61
19. Frei MS, Mondelli C, García-Muelas R, Kley KS, assessment for oxy-fuel combustion. Energy Puértolas B, López N, et al. Atomic-scale engineer- 2022;254:124303. [CrossRef] ing of indium oxide promotion by palladium for [55] Tranier J-P, Dubettier Richard, Darde A, Perrin N. methanol production via CO₂ hydrogenation. Nat Air separation, flue gas compression and purifica- Commun 2019;10:3377. [CrossRef] tion units for oxy-coal combustion systems. Energy
20. Delsman ER, Laarhoven BJPF, De Croon MHJM, Proceed 2011;4:966–971. [CrossRef] Kramer GJ, & Schouten JC. Comparison between [56] Watson JC, Pennisi KJ, Parrish C, Majumdar S. conventional fixed-bed and microreactor technolo- Techno-economic process optimization for a range gy for a portable hydrogen production case. Chem of membrane performances: What provides real val- Eng Res Design 2005;83:1063−1075. [CrossRef] ue for point-source carbon capture?” Carbon Cap-
21. Pak KS, Hong YS. Potential environmental ım- ture Sci Technol 2024;11:100182. [CrossRef] pact evaluation of the methanol synthesis pro- [57] IEA. Global Hydrogen Review 2023. International cess by gas-to-methanol technology. ACS Omega Energy Agency. 2023. Available at: https://www. 2025;10:13228−13235. [CrossRef] iea.org/reports/global-hydrogen-review-2023 Ac-
22. KFAS White paper. towards a hydrogen strategy for cessed: 12 May 2025. Kuwait. Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of [58] Shell Quest Carbon Capture and Storage Project: Sciences: Kuwait; 2021. p. 92. Annual Report. 2022. https://www.shell.ca Accessed
23. Bertone M, Stabile L, Cortellessa G, Arpino F, on 12 May 2025. Buonanno, G. Techno-economic assessment of
24. Global CCS Institute. CO₂RE Database: Port Arthur amine-based carbon capture in waste-to-en- CCS Project Profile. 2023. Available at: https://co2re. ergy ıncineration plant retrofit. Sustainability co Accessed on May 14, 2025. 2024;16:8468. [CrossRef]
25. Sreńscek-Nazzal, J, Kiełbasa K. Advances in modifi- and Carbon Capture Project Overview. 2024. Avail- cation of commercial activated carbon for enhance- ment of CO₂ capture. Appl Surf Sci 2019;494:137– able at: https://hynet.co.uk Accessed on May 14,
26. [CrossRef] 2025.
27. Pasichnyk M. Membrane Technology for chal- [61] Song C, Zhao Z, Liu Z. Evaluation of regional and lenging separations: Removal of CO₂, SO2 and temporal dynamics in CCUS-hydrogen develop- NOx from flue and waste gases. Sep Purif Technol ment policy pathways: A data-driven framework. 2023;323:124436. [CrossRef] Renew Energy 2024;200:1500−1515.
28. Nemitallah MA, Habib MA, Badr HM, Said SA, Ja- [63] IRENA. Carbon Capture and Storage in Hydrogen mal A, Ben-Mansour R, et al. Oxy-fuel combustion Production: Technology Brief. International Renew- technology: Current status, applications, and trends. able Energy Agency. 2022. https://www.irena.org/ Int J Energy Res 2017;41:1670–1708. [CrossRef] publications/2022/Mar/CCS-in-hydrogen-produc-
29. Seo SB, Kim HW, Kang SY, Go ES, Keel S. Tech- tion Accessed on May 14, 2025. no-economic comparison between air-fired and [64] Rubin ES, Davison JE, Herzog HJ. The cost of CO₂ oxy-fuel circulating fluidized bed power plants with capture and storage. Int J Greenhouse Gas Control ultra-supercritical cycle. Energy 2021;233:121217. 2015;40:378–400. [CrossRef] [CrossRef] [65] Li R, Kawanami H. A recent review of primary hy-
30. García-Luna S, Ortiz C, Carro A, Chacartegui R, drogen carriers, hydrogen production methods, and Pérez-Maqueda LA. Oxygen production routes applications. Catalysts 2023;13:562. [CrossRef]

Share and Cite