Carbon capture technologies and sustainable transformation in fertilizer production

Abstract

Introduction

The need for increasing food demand has increased day by day due to the rapid rise in the population. So, the sustainable transformation of agricultural industry is essential in this situation. The agricultural industry tries to improve crop efficiency and product yield by applying fertilizers‚ which are good nutrients for plants. However, they have certain environmental impacts such as climate change by the release of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and nitrous oxide emissions. Food security, national revenue, employment, international trade, and agriculture-dependent industries are

all bolstered by the agricultural sector. By 2050, the world population is predicted to reach 9.8 billion people, exacerbating the world’s food security and making sustainable development one of the most crucial goals [1]. The agriculture sector is 3.2 times more effective than other sectors at reducing poverty [2]. There are 18 essential nutrients, three of which are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen sourced from air (as CO₂) and water [3]. The other nine elements called micronutrients provide a small amount of effect on the growth of plants (Fig. 1).

*Corresponding author *E-mail adress: ceydadagcan123@gmail.com Published by Yıldız Technical University, İstanbul, Türkiye This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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Figure 1. Essential nutrients for plants [3]. Fertilizers are used as a supplementary product to create nutrient-rich environment for plants and are commonly applied in agriculture due to a lack of essential minerals in the soil. There are two types of fertilizers: organic fertilizers and inorganic (i.e. synthetic) fertilizers. Organic fertilizers are derived from natural sources such as compost and animal manure. This type of fertilizers is important for its recycling properties. But organic fertilizers release the nutrients more slowly to feed the soil. Otherwise, inorganic fertilizers are produced from chemical processes (generally known as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) fertilizers (NPK) and blended with other materials and provide specific nutrients to feed the plant. Nitrogen (N) is the most essential and limited nutrient in soil, playing a critical role in plant growth, chlorophyll formation, and protein synthesis. For this reason, nitrogen fertilizers, especially urea, are the most important and most frequently used fertilizers in agriculture.

CCUS technologies offer a promising pathway to reduce carbon emissions in the fertilizer industry.

Post-combustion carbon capture stands out as the most feasible option for short-term implementation.

Integrating CCUS into fertilizer production can support Türkiye’s emission reduction targets and industrial competitiveness.

However, urea is lost in large quantities through evaporation, leaching, and emissions due to its high solubility, low molecular weight, and low thermal stability. [4]. A large portion of nitrogen in the urea is lost through evaporation, leaching, and emissions, especially when applied to the soil surface in alkaline conditions [5]. These losses contribute to environmental issues, such as water pollution and eutrophication. Due to these side effects, mitigation methods such as controlled-release fertilizers and the development of green ammonia technologies have increased globally to prevent the environmental risk of emissions from leaching. The global fertilizer market was valued at $184.60 billion in 2021 and is expected to reach $251.57 billion by 2030, growing at a CAGR of 3.55% from 2022 to 2030 [6]. Major producers include China, India, Russia, the U.S., and Canada (Fig. 2). Nitrogen leads global NPK production, accounting for 57% of total production in 2020, with 123.5 million tons produced globally [7]. Around 54.8% of this came from China, India, the U.S., and Russia. Russia and the U.S. increased nitrogen production by 67% and 38% respectively, while China’s production decreased by 17% in 2020 [7].

Figure 2. Distribution of the fertilizer industry worldwide [6].

The fertilizer market includes several product segments: straight fertilizers, complex fertilizers, conventional fertilizers, and controlled-release fertilizers (CRFs). Although straight fertilizers dominate the market in 2024 with a 72% share, CRFs are the fastest-growing segment due to their efficiency and environmental benefits [6]. In Türkiye‚ the fertilizer production began in 1939 and significantly developed after the 1970s due to increased investments. The first production took place at the Karabük Iron and Steel Factories through the reaction of ammonia gas with sulfuric acid, resulting in ammonium sulfate (21% N) [5]. Fertilizer exports from Türkiye remain low compared to other countries, primarily due to its high dependency on imports of certain raw materials. On the other hand, the rising inflation and falling national currency have further made fertilizer imports expensive, negatively impacting Turkish farmers in recent years [7]. According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry [7], Türkiye has consumed 7.03 million tonnes of fertilizers in 2023, with 5.2 million tonnes being imported due to limited domestic raw materials, except for phosphate in Mardin Mazıdağı. The country relies on imports of nitrogen, phosphate, and potassium fertilizers from various regions like Oman, China, North Africa, and the EU [7]. In Türkiye, The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry banned ammonium nitrate in 2016 for security reasons and restricted the use of ammonium sulfate because it affects on soil pH [7]. These were largely replaced by urea-based and nitrogen-phosphate-potassium (NPK) compound fertilizers like 25-5-10 NPK (25% N‚ 5% P2O5‚ 10% K2O). Climate change and environmental pollution are the main global threats. In response to these issues, the European Union launched the European Green Deal on December 11, 2019, aiming to reach a more sustainable future. A key component of the deal is the carbon border adjustment mechanism (CBAM), which will significantly affect international trade [8]. The EU emissions trading system (ETS) is the world’s largest carbon pricing system and plays a central role in this regulation. According to trade map (2023), in 2022, the EU-27 accounted for 48.76% of Türkiye’s fertilizer exports, alongside major shares in electricity, steel, cement, and aluminum exports. With a projected 9% increase in global population, the demand for food and energy is rising, leading to higher emissions. As fertilizers are essential for food production, their usage—and related emissions—are also increasing. The fertilizer industry currently accounts for around 5% of global greenhouse gas emissions [9]. Studies show that agriculture sector emit about 2.6 gigatonnes of CO₂ equivalent annually, exceeding emissions from global aviation and shipping combined. In synthetic fertilizer production, ammonia production is the main source of emissions. In

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Türkiye, the production of ammonia and nitric acid, which are key raw materials in fertilizer, is 50–65% more emission-intensive than that in the EU. To address this, most of the countries aim to reduce emissions by adopting innovative technologies like alternative processes and carbon capture systems. In line with the European Green Deal, global fertilizer and chemical producers are setting interim targets for 2030 and aiming to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050

Literature Review

Soil is one of the largest carbon stocks and plays an important role in combating climate change by storing carbon through the soil carbon sequestration process. Carbon sequestration involves capturing and storing atmospheric CO₂, playing a significant role in mitigating climate change. Also‚ this process has benefits such as increasing agricultural yields, improving water quality and enhancing soil health [10]. Furthermore, CO₂ is known to accelerate plant growth by increasing the rate of photosynthesis while minimizing water loss through transpiration [11]. CCU (Carbon Capture and Utilization) is the process of capturing CO₂ and converting it into useful products, so that it can be utilized instead of being buried underground. In agriculture, this refers to the reuse of CO₂ in agricultural production. Although CO₂ obtained with direct air capture can provide a decline in both greenhouse gases emitted from the sector and in imports of fertilizers, this technology is not yet widespread [12]. International Roadmaps and Strategies for Fertilizer Industry By 2050, the European Green Deal [13] aims to achieve climate neutrality and build a resource-efficient and low-carbon economy. As part of this global transformation, during the COP (Conference of the Parties), countries have published their INDCs (Intended Nationally Determined Contributions) on the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) platform to demonstrate their commitments to combat climate change [14]. For example, the EU has targeted a 40% reduction compared to 1990 levels, while Canada, Korea, Australia, and Türkiye have also committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions in line with their economic conditions. These targets necessitate the development of specific strategies and roadmaps for carbon-intensive sectors [15-19]. The Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), developed for this purpose, aims to prevent carbon leakage by equalizing the carbon-related costs of imported products with those of domestically manufactured products within the EU [13]. Therefore, the European Union has developed various policy and financing instruments to accelerate the transformation of carbon-intensive industrial sectors. Within the framework of the European Green Deal, especially through

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the Innovation and Research Fund, CCUS projects have been supported at the industrial scale, and fertilizer and chemical industries are among the priority areas [20]. In addition, the applicability of CCUS technologies in the agri-food chain is also addressed in projects carried out under the Horizon Europe program. Carbon management has also started integrating into climate policies in developing countries. Major economies such as China, India, and Brazil are developing national strategies for CCUS technologies; while China focuses on infrastructure investments under the 14th Five-Year Development Plan, India supports carbon reduction targets with the National Hydrogen Mission [21]. However, structural barriers such as infrastructure deficiencies, high costs, and policy uncertainties limit the spread of CCUS applications in these countries [22]. Therefore, it is important to support these technologies with mechanisms such as carbon pricing, emission trading systems, and public incentives [22]. In Türkiye, sustainable transformation policies for the fertilizer sector aim to promote low-emission technologies, to encourage organic and microbial fertilizer production, and to integrate biogas and landfill gas facilities into production processes. In addition, steps such as supporting green and blue ammonia production and increasing energy efficiency in existing facilities could play a critical role in reducing the sector’s carbon footprint. This transformation process also includes workforce requalification, social inclusion, and support for carbon-reducing practices. These national initiatives are integrated with global roadmaps and strategic frameworks in the fertilizer sector. Arrangements such as the Paris Agreement and the European Green Deal encourage countries towards carbon capture and low-emission technologies in line with their greenhouse gas emission reduction targets. Türkiye is investing in N₂O catalysts and aims to reduce emissions by promoting the use of green-blue ammonia [23]. Similarly, the International Energy Agency’s “Ammonia Technology Roadmap” report presents three scenarios for decarbonizing ammonia production and assesses the viability of low-carbon technologies. International roadmaps focus not only on technological transformation but also on financial support mechanisms, multi-stakeholder governance structures, and just transition principles [24].

CCUS Technologies For Fertilizer Industry

Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (CCUS) Systems Carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) systems, one of the most critical technological tools in the fight against climate change, play a strategic role in the decarbonisation of high emission sectors. In line with Türkiye’s net zero carbon emission target, transformation of high carbon emitting sectors such as power generation, cement, steel and fertiliser industries is of great importance. Con-

sidering that the majority of carbon emissions in these sectors come directly from the production processes, there is a need not only for reduction technologies but also for conversion technologies. CCUS systems play a critical role in this transformation; they reshape the carbon cycle by capturing CO₂ before it enters the atmosphere, converting it into an input with economic value, or storing it safely [25]. CCUS systems are structured around a value chain consisting of four main stages: carbon capture, transport, utilisation and storage. Each stage includes different technological methods and operational solutions. For example, carbon capture can be achieved by pre-combustion, post-combustion, oxy-fuel and direct air capture (DAC) technologies. Among these methods, post-combustion is the most widespread and stands out especially for its easy integration into existing industrial infrastructures [25]. Carbon capture technologies aim to capture CO₂ gas from the atmosphere and then store or utilise it [25]. CO₂ is emitted into the atmosphere together with other gases as a result of industrial processes, hydrocarbon-fired power generation, steel and cement production, hydrogen production, fertiliser production and fuel production in refineries. Carbon capture technology refers to the separation of CO₂ from other gases emitted into the atmosphere. There are many different technologies used in the capture, transport and geological storage of carbon. These processes are technologies that will help reduce greenhouse gases. It has a key role in combating climate change [26]. There are four main carbon capture technologies. These technologies can be used before combustion, after combustion or with oxy-fuel. •

Absorption: It is the separation of CO₂ with chemical solvents by dissolving it in liquid medium.

Adsorption (Surface Retention): The retention of CO₂ by binding to a solid surface (e.g. activated carbon, zeolite or MOF). This method is particularly favoured at low CO₂ concentrations (e.g. direct air capture).

Membrane Separation: It is the separation of CO₂ through special polymeric or inorganic membranes by utilising molecular permeability differences.

Cryogenic Separation: It is the separation of CO₂ from other gases by turning it into liquid or solid at low temperatures. Although this method is energy intensive, high purity CO₂ can be obtained when combined with hybrid systems [26].

Carbon capture technologies in blue ammonia and fertilizer sector Ammonia is an essential chemical, especially in the production of agricultural fertilizers, and 85% of its production is directed to this field. However, since 95% of the

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production is based on fossil fuels, and the production process consumes large amounts of energy, ammonia production generates high levels of CO₂ emissions. This process accounts for about 2% of global energy demand and 1.3% of CO₂ emissions [27]. To address this issue, blue ammonia production involves the integration of carbon capture and storage systems into the Haber-Bosch process, which uses hydrogen produced by conventional steam methane reforming (SMR). Through this integration, CO₂ generated during production is separated by absorption technologies (e.g. MEA solutions) and either injected underground or converted into a reusable form. The product obtained by this method is called “blue ammonia” [27]. Blue ammonia systems fall into two main categories: Gen 1 systems integrate carbon capture into existing fossil-based production, while Gen 2 systems utilise renewable energy sources to produce hydrogen, making the process lower emission. However, the integration of CCS technology alone is not sufficient; the emission impact of the entire production system must be assessed through life cycle analysis. In particular, the risk of “fossil lock-in” may give the impression that production is only decarbonised on the surface [27]. Carbon capture and utilization (CCU) systems have the potential to reduce climate impact, but risk fossil lock-in if production processes remain based on fossil resources. As stated in the TfS guidelines, the system extension approach attributes CO₂ emission reductions only to by-products, while the main product (e.g. ammonia) continues to carry the same climate burden as conventional production. This increases the risk of making fossil-based production structurally unsustainable [27]. Furthermore, in scenarios with high methane leakage, the short-term climate impact of blue ammonia production may be more negative compared to green alternatives [28]. Therefore, in CCU applications, not only the CO₂ benefit but also the energy profile and longterm impacts of the whole system should be considered. In the system depicted in Figure 3, CO₂ capture technology is integrated directly into the ammonia production process. The CO₂ gas generated during the production of blue ammonia exits the reactor as a gas stream. This CO₂ is directed to an absorption tower containing a solution of monoethanolamine (MEA). MEA chemically reacts with the CO₂, keeping it in solution. This solution is then sent to a separator unit to recover the CO₂. Here it is heated and the CO₂ is separated again, resulting in high purity captured CO₂. The CO₂ captured in this system is treated as a by-product of the production process. No system expansion or allocation procedure is applied; the multiple output is accepted directly [27]. When direct air capture (DAC) technology is added to blue ammonia systems, the system boundaries are further

Figure 3. System boundaries for blue ammonia production. extended; CO₂ captured from the atmosphere replaces CO₂ generated in the production process, resulting in a lower net emission structure. Modelling studies in Germany have shown that such integrated systems reduce climate change impact by up to 20% compared to grey ammonia production [27]. The conventional SMR (steam methane reforming) method produces 1 kg of grey ammonia without CO₂ capture. CO₂ capture is integrated into the ammonia production process. When producing 1 kg of blue ammonia, CO₂ is captured at the same time. Three different production approaches are compared in the study. Gray ammonia production is based on conventional steam methane reforming (SMR), does not involve CO₂ capture and its functional unit is 1 kg of ammonia. The production of blue ammonia includes CO₂ capture technology integrated into the process, with the functional unit defined as 1 kg of blue ammonia along with the CO₂ captured during production. In addition, in the production of blue ammonia where direct air capture (DAC) is incorporated, in-process CO₂ capture as well as CO₂ obtained through DAC replaces the byproduct, so that the functional unit is 1 kg of blue ammonia and the associated CO₂ capture. In this case, in order to solve the multiple output problem, the limits are expanded to include DAC and the environmental impacts of ammonia and CO₂ are examined separately [27]. In research projects and industrial applications, the most common method in carbon capture processes are aminebased technologies, particularly based on monoethanolamine (MEA) sorption. These methods generally achieve CO₂ capture efficiencies of 85-90% in environments. The amine solutions saturated with CO₂ are separated from CO₂ by thermal treatment; thus, both CO₂ and the amine solution are obtained and made suitable for reuse. The captured CO₂ is compressed and transported by pipelines to storage or utilisation areas. A detailed life cycle inventory including

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transport of storage processes was presented; 90% of CO₂ purity, 30 years capture unit and 18 years compressor lifetime were assumed in the analysis [27]. Direct (airborne) carbon capture (DACC) captures CO₂ from air. This reduces the level of CO₂, helps to reduce emissions and stabilise the amount of CO₂ in the air [25]. Figures 3 and 4 represent the system boundaries used in the life cycle analysis (LCA) to assess the climate impacts of blue ammonia production. Figure 3 presents a system boundary limited to the production process, including only the in-process carbon capture unit, while Figure 4 reflects a scenario where the captured CO₂ is replaced by an external direct air capture (DAC) system, thus expanding the environmental contribution of the system [27]. This approach, in line with TfS guidelines, defines the benefit of captured CO₂ not as a direct reduction, but also in terms of avoided GHG emissions. CO₂ is thus included in the functionality of the system as a by-product and not just waste, which more realistically reflects the distribution of impacts between products in multifunctional processes. Thanks to the system extension, the climate benefit of the CO₂ generated during the production of blue ammonia can be analysed [27]. However, the environmental impacts of this systematic framework largely depend on methane leakage in the natural gas supply chain. Leakage rates in the production and transportation of natural gas are particularly decisive for short-term climate impacts. Indeed, TWP (Technology Warming Potential) analyses show that blue ammonia production can only be climate competitive with green ammonia under low leakage rates. For example, even at a leakage rate of 2.2%, the total thermal impact of the blue ammonia system is higher than the green alternative and can only be equalized at very low rates of 0.2% [28]. These system boundaries therefore reveal not only the technical flux, but also the impact of methodological choice in climate as-

sessment on climate outcomes. Redefining the role of CO₂ within system boundaries could offer a strategy to reduce fossil lock-in, but only if the energy source is low-carbon and methane leakage is under control. Carbon storage technologies Geological storage methods are used for the long-term disposal of CO₂. In this context, CO₂ is injected into deep underground reservoirs in a supercritical state. The main storage environments are depleted oil and gas fields, deep saline aquifers and coal seams. The Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) method traps CO₂ underground, simultaneously increasing oil productivity. ADNOC Shah Gas project stores 2.3 million tonnes of CO₂ per year with this method. Effective storage requires >1000 m depth, porous reservoirs, seal rocks and leakage risk management [26]. CCUS projects Large-scale projects demonstrating the feasibility of carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) technologies have been implemented around the world. These projects are remarkable in terms of integration of technologies into sectors, geographical suitability and cost-effectiveness. Yara – Sluiskil Plant – Netherlands (2022) Part of the Northern Lights project in Norway, this facility liquefies CO₂ emissions from the steam methane reforming (SMR) process used for hydrogen production by sequestering them through chemical absorption and transporting them to geological formations beneath the North Sea. The project aims to permanently store approximately 800,000 tonnes of CO₂ per year. This project is one of the first full-scale CCS applications directly integrated into the fertiliser sector and serves as a pioneering example in the sector’s transition to carbon neutrality [29]. CF Industries – Yazoo City Facility –USA (2024) At the ammonia production facility, CO₂ generated by the steam methane reforming (SMR) process is separated by chemical absorption. It is typically captured from the CO₂ gas stream using solvents such as monoethanolamine (MEA), then compressed and injected into underground formations through ExxonMobil’s infrastructure. This project, planned to permanently store approximately 500,000 tons of CO₂ annually, is one of the pioneering applications in the US fertilizer industry aimed at reducing carbon emissions [30]. Saudi Aramco Blue Ammonia Shipment - Saudi Arabia Japan (2020) Saudi Aramco successfully delivered the world’s first shipment of carbon capture and utilisation (CCU)-based blue ammonia to Japan in 2020. In this process, CO₂ generated during blue ammonia production was captured and

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transported for use at the Uthmaniyah oil recovery pilot plant in Saudi Arabia and the methanol production plant in Jubail [27]. Pupuk Indonesia - Pertamina - Mitsubishi Joint Venture - Indonesia Pupuk Indonesia, Pertamina, Mitsubishi Corporation Located in Southeast Asia, this initiative aims to assess the feasibility of establishing a supply chain for hydrogen and ammonia through carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) [27]. Pupuk Indonesia Production Capacity- Indonesia It is a major facility in Indonesia with an annual production capacity of over five million tonnes, accounting for approximately 3% of global ammonia production [27]. Mexico Technical Research Project- Mexico The environmental impacts of carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) in an ammonia plant for applications such as an advanced oil recovery system, carbonated beverages and urea synthesis were investigated in detail [27]. CCU Based Blue Ammonia Modelling- Germany In a modelling study conducted in present-day Germany, it was shown that the impact of CCU-based blue ammonia on climate change is reduced by 20% compared to grey ammonia [27]. ADNOC Shah Gas CCS Project- Shah, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (2019) Under KBR’s responsibility, this project has the capacity to capture, utilise and store 2.3 million tonnes per annum (MTPA) of carbon at ADNOC’s ultra-acidic gas production facilities [31]. Northern Lights CCS Project- Eastern Norway (2017) With an annual capacity of 1.5 million tonnes of CO₂, the project includes an onshore CO₂ receiving and storage terminal, an offshore pipeline and a subsea injection system [31].

Quest CCS Project- Canada (2013) Located at Shell’s Scotford complex, this project is designed to capture 1.1 million tonnes of CO₂ per year in a steam methane reformer. The captured CO₂ is sent to underground storage at a depth of 2,300 metres, 80 km from the plant [31]. Gorgon CCS Project- Barrow Island, Western Australia (2005) The Gorgon Project is one of the largest CCS projects in the world with an annual injection capacity of 3.4 to 4.0 million tonnes of CO₂. CO₂ separated from natural gas production and liquefaction processes is injected into the saline aquifer layer 2.3 km below ground via a 7 km long pipeline [31]. Carbon Capture Efficiency of Processes and Carbon Emission Amount CCUS systems differ greatly in cost, energy usage, CO2 capture efficiency, and scalability [32]. Hanson et al.[33]’s study assessed different carbon capture technologies from various perspectives and evaluated parameters such as cost, efficiency and scalability for comparison. Parameters for different technologies including absorption, membrane separation, adsorption, direct air capture, cryogenic capture, and bio-based technologies are given in Table 1 [33]. According to the Fertilizer Sector Policy Document prepared by TOB-TAGEM, the Turkey Sectoral Low Carbon Roadmaps prepared by the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Republic of Turkey, and data from the Directorate-General for Agricultural and Rural Development prepared by the European Commission, 547,000 tons of urea-based fertilizer and 234,400 tons of NPK-based fertilizer are produced in Turkey, while 5.4 million tons of urea-based fertilizer and 17.3 million tons of NPK-based fertilizer are produced in Europe. In a study conducted by TOB-TAGEM to calculate the carbon footprint of fertilizer, emission intensity data were reported as 1.49 tons CO2/tons product for urea-based fertilizers in Türkiye [7], 1.05 for NPK based fertilizers in Türkiye, 1.34 tons CO2/tons product for urea-based fertilizers in Europe, and 0.54 tons CO2/ tons product for NPK based fertilizers in Europe [34-36].

Table 1. Parameters for absorption, membrane separation, adsorption, direct air capture, cryogenic capture, and bio-based technologies. CCUS technologies

Cost (USD/ton CO₂) Energy consumption (MJ/ton CO₂) CO₂ capture efficiency (%) Scalability (TRL)

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Materials And Methods

One of the parameters that is effective in finding the optimum carbon capture process based on fertilizer sector is carbon capture capacity. The level of development of countries causes differences in the amount of carbon emissions. Therefore, in this study, carbon capture capacities for different processes were calculated based on the carbon emission amounts of Turkey and the European Union for urea and NPK based fertilisers and the efficiency of the processes was analyzed by using Equation 1. CO₂ Capture Capacity = Fertilizer Amount × Emission Intensity × Process Efficiency [1]

Results And Discussion

In the study, the efficiency, energy consumption, and carbon capture capacities of carbon capture technologies in the fertilizer industry were taken into consideration and the technologies were compared for the fertilizer sector. Carbon capture capacities specific to the fertilizer sector could not be found in the literature, so carbon emission and carbon capture capacities were calculated according to the urea and NPK based fertilizer production amounts in Türkiye and Europe. The data and calculations from the literature are summarized in Table 2 and 3. According to Table 2 and 3, the absorption process has an efficiency of 90–95%, with an energy consumption of 3–5 MJ/ton CO₂, a carbon capture capacity of 0.73–0.77 million tons for urea and 2.22–2.34 million tons

for NPK in Türkiye, and 6.51–6.87 million tons for urea and 8.41–8.87 million tons for NPK in Europe. Adsorption has an efficiency of 70–85%, energy consumption of 2–4 MJ/ton CO₂, a capture capacity of 2–4 million tons for urea and 1.72 – 2.09 million tons for NPK in Türkiye, and 5.07–6.15 million tons for urea and 6.54–7.94 million tons for NPK in Europe. Membrane separation shows an efficiency of 85–90%, energy consumption of 2–3 MJ/ton CO₂, a carbon capture capacity of 0.69–0.73 million tons for urea and 2.09–2.22 million tons for NPK in Türkiye, and 6.15 – 6.51 million tons for urea and 7.94–8.41 million tons for NPK in Europe. Cryogenic capture has an efficiency of 95–99%, energy consumption of 4–6 MJ/ton CO₂, a capture capacity of 0.77–0.81 million tons for urea and 2.34–2.44 million tons for NPK in Türkiye, and 6.87–7.16 million tons for urea and 8.87–9.25 million tons for NPK in Europe. Bio-based technologies have an efficiency of 60–80%, energy consumption of 1–2 MJ/ton CO₂, a carbon capture capacity of 0.49–0.65 million tons for urea and 1.48–1.97 million tons for NPK in Türkiye, and 4.34–5.79 million tons for urea and 5.61–7.47 million tons for NPK in Europe. Direct air capture has an efficiency of 80–90%, energy consumption of 8–12 MJ/ton CO₂, a carbon capture capacity of 0.65–0.73 million tons for urea and 1.97 –

Conclusion

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) technologies stand out as a strategic tool in the fight against climate change. Considering Türkiye’s current industrial structure and GHG emission profile, the most appropriate sector-based CCUS approaches are concentrated in areas with high emission intensity, such as power generation, cement, iron-steel and petrochemicals. The post-combustion technology applied in these sectors stands out as the most logical option in terms of ease of integration into existing infrastructure, technological maturity and economic viability. Especially in fossil fuel fired power plants and industrial facilities, this method is expected to be the most widespread and effective solution in the short term.

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Current projections indicate that CCUS technologies will play an important role in both reducing carbon emissions and achieving sustainable economic transformation as they become more widely adopted over the next decade. However, the widespread adoption of the technology depends on many factors such as infrastructure investments, economic incentive mechanisms, and social acceptance. While there are already pilot studies in Türkiye, there is a need for comprehensive and integrated projects.

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Data Availability Statement

The authors confirm that the data that supports the findings of this study are available within the article. Raw data that support the finding of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

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Conflict Of Interest

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethics

There are no ethical issues with the publication of this manuscript.

Statement On The Use Of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence was not used in the preparation of the article.

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