Change in highway transportation-induced carbon footprint of Kayseri province

Abstract

Keywords: Carbon dioxide quantity; Tier 1; Global Warming; Climate Change

Introduction

Together with the ever-increasing world population and industrialization, anthropogenic environmental problems are also increasing significantly. Global warming, directly influencing the other problems and altering the climate

system, is among the most significant ones of these environmental problems. The global warming issue has become a hazard to all the living individuals on this planet. Therefore, the fight against global warming problems requires a

*Corresponding author. *E-mail address: fozyonar@cumhuriyet.edu.tr, omurgokkus@erciyes.edu.tr This paper was recommended for publication in revised form by Regional Editor Eyup Debik Published by Yıldız Technical University Press, İstanbul, Turkey Copyright 2021, Yıldız Technical University. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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joint action inclusive of effort and attempt of entire humanity. Transportation plays a key role in the acceleration of economic growth and development and improvement of living standards and quality of people. However, traffic and transportation systems have some negative aspects in terms of energy consumption and environmental impacts [1]. Since the transportation sector has significant contributions to fossil fuel consumption, it is expected to play an active role in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions [2]. Such an impact includes one-third of global energy consumption, 40% of raw material consumption, and 30% of carbon emissions [3]. Primarily composed of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions increased by 70% from 1970 to 2004 with a great contribution to climate change and global warming. In 2004, especially CO2 emissions constituted 77% of the total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Since these emissions largely resulted from anthropogenic activities, changes in relevant policies and behaviors may aid in the mitigation of climate change and negative impacts on human health and the environment [4]. Negative impacts of environmental pollution and global warming influence entire species. Humans have great responsibilities in the reduction of carbon emissions [5]. The Paris Agreement, adopted by 196 parties of the UN on 12 December 2015, is among the most important steps taken in combat global climate change. This treaty entered into force with the approval of 55 countries constituting 55% of global greenhouse gas emissions. This treaty to combat climate change classifies the countries as developed/ developing countries and assigns them with “common, but differentiated responsibilities and relative competencies”. The long-term goal of the treaty is to limit global warming below 2oC compared to pre-industrial levels [6]. As it was in this and the previous treaties, Turkey should also develop mitigation strategies for greenhouse gas emissions. Turkey’s annual greenhouse gas emissions report is prepared by TURKSTAT and submitted to the UNFCCC. The updated report was submitted and disseminated to the UNFCCC on 13 April 2021 [7]. With Paris Agreement, sector-based carbon footprint calculations of the countries could be made in an accelerated fashion [8-14]. In the forthcoming days, carbon trade will be initiated for carbon mitigation. Such trade has already been initiated in airways and will widespread into all sectors for reduction of carbon emissions. Without any doubt, these measures will bring in certain limitations in business operations and the daily life of every country. In Turkey, greenhouse gas emissions are increasing day by day. According to the 2017 greenhouse gas emission data of Turkey, the energy sector had the greatest greenhouse gas emission. Transportation-induced greenhouse gas emissions are also included in this group. In

2017, transportation-induced greenhouse gas emission was calculated as 84.7 Mt. It has been stated by the Turkish Statistical Institute that the net contribution of Turkey to the GHG emissions for the energy sector in 2018 is 88.02% as 373,101 kt CO2eq. It was also stated that for the same year, CO2eq emissions from transportation were 84,502 kt and this constituted 22.6% of the energy sector [15]. Highway transportation-induced air pollutant emissions exert serious threats to urban air quality and global warming. Therefore, countries and societies should develop various strategies in line with common goals and reduce their carbon emissions in the struggle with climate change [16]. In this sense, countries and societies should develop strategies for common purposes to combat climate change and should reduce carbon emissions accordingly. In this study, carbon footprint calculations were performed based on transportation-induced CO2, N2O, and CH4 greenhouse gas emissions in Kayseri province. Tier 1 approach, a calculation methodology for carbon footprint calculation recommended by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), was used to calculate transportation-induced carbon footprint between the years 2016-2017. Carbon Footprint Calculation Carbon footprint implies the general total of greenhouse gases generated directly and indirectly by an individual, institution or organization, or production process. Greenhouse gasses are “naturally existing greenhouse gases” and “anthropogenically generated greenhouse gases” [17]. Naturally generated greenhouse gasses include water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), ozone (O3), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Anthropogenic greenhouse gases include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and a totally fluoride compound sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) [18]. “Global Warming Potential” is the time-integrated radiative forcing due to a pulse emission of a given gas, over some given period (or horizon) relative to a pulse emission of carbon dioxide [19]. It indicates direct and indirect greenhouse effect generation characteristics of a unit gas in a certain time frame relative to CO2, selected as a reference gas. Highway transportation consumes about 76% of total oil consumption in the transportation sector; on the other hand, railway transportation consumes only 1% of total oil consumption. In EU countries, urban transportation is responsible for 23% of greenhouse gas emissions. While highway transportation releases 72.8% of greenhouse gasses, railway transportation has only 0.6% contribution to greenhouse gas emissions. In terms of CO2 emissions, the transportation sector has the greatest contribution [20]. In other words, it expresses how many times more heat retention capacity of other greenhouse gases except CO2 can be compared to the same amount of CO2. In this way,

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a common expression is used for all greenhouse gasses. According to Table 1, although sulfur hexafluoride has the greatest global warming potential, CO2 has the lowest value. However, in terms of emissions, CO2 has the greatest quantity [17, 21, 22]. According to IPCC assessment reports, global warming potentials may change from time to time because of the changes in internal, external, and natural climate systems of the world. Estimations of the International Energy Agency (IEA) revealed that the primary energy demand of the world will increase by about 40% between the years 2007 – 2030. When the emission reductions were compared with the increases in energy demands, it was seen that there was much to do to combat global warming [23]. Kayseri is located in central Turkey with a 16,970 km2 area that consists of eleven district municipalities and five metropolitan sub-provincial municipalities. Kayseri is the 15th most populous region in Turkey with a total population of 1,407,409 residents with about 1100 tons of generated municipal solid waste per day and one of the most industrialized provinces of Turkey [24]. Due to all these strategically important features, Kayseri province has been chosen as the target region in this study. In Table 2, some data for vehicles registered in traffic in Kayseri province was provided. Kayseri is one of the biggest cities of Turkey with a 17,193 km2 surface area, 1,322,376 population, and 972 industrial manufacturer companies. As seen in Figure 1, it is placed near the center of Turkey [26]. Kayseri is one of the foreground cities in Anatolia, which indicates the importance of industry and production for the city [27]. Due to the high population density and

high commercial capacity of Kayseri province, the city was selected as a target region in this study. There are various guidelines to be used in greenhouse gas emissions of the countries or organizations. These guidelines include IPCC, ISO 14064, and UNFCCC-like standards. According to IPCC guidelines, three different Tier approaches are used in the calculation of footprints for greenhouse gas emissions [18, 29].

Theory

Present data were obtained from the fuel consumption measurement results of the Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EPDK) for Kayseri province [30]. With the aid of the Tier 1 method, the total CO2 footprint quantity of CO2, N2O, and CH4 combustion gases was determined. In Table 3, Transportation-induced Fuel Consumption Data for Kayseri province was given. In the present study, Tier 1 method, the simplest approach, was used to calculate the transportationinduced carbon footprint of Kayseri province. This method of calculation is constructed on the calculation of CO2 quantity generated through the burning of fuel used in the transportation sector. Calculations are performed based on the assumption “if A quantity of fuel (coal, natural gas, crude oil, etc.) was used, then B quantity emission is expected”. CO2 emissions are calculated as follows:

3. Selection of proper carbon dioxide emission factors

Table 1. Global Warming Potentials (GWP) of Greenhouse Gasses [25] Greenhouse Global Warming Potential Gases The second The fourth The fifth assessment assessment assessment report (SAR) report (AR4) report (AR5) CO2

Table 2. Type and number of vehicles registered in traffic in Kayseri province [28] Years

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dioxide quantity within consumed fuel with the use of these factors. The most common fuels used in highway vehicles and conversion factors for these fuel types are provided in Table

4. Carbon dioxide emission factors for the same fuel types

are provided in Table 5. Energy Consumption [TJ] = Fuel Consumption [t]

×103 × Conversion Factor [TJ/kt] Carbon Content[Gg C] = Carbon Emission Factor [kg/TJ] × Energy Consumption [TJ]

CarbonEmission[Gg C] = Global Warming Potential × CarbonContent[Gg C] CO2EmissionQuantity[Gg CO2] = CarbonEmission [Gg C] × 44/12

In the calculation of emission quantity, the stoichiometric effect of CH4 and N2O gases as the final products should be calculated and then total CO2 quantity should be determined. In this calculation, emission factors of methane and nitrous oxide gases are taken into consideration (Table 6). Finally, to calculate the potential effect on global warming, gas quantity is multiplied by the potential effect of each gas provided in Table 1. The global warming potential Table 3. Transportation-induced Fuel Consumption Data for Kayseri province (ton) [28] Year 2018

values in the fifth assessment report (AR5) were given in the formula below (Eq. 5). GWP(CO2,CH4,N2O)[Gg CO2] = GWP value × CO2 EmissionQuantity[Gg CO2]

Results And Discussion

The data provided in Table 3 were used in Equations (1-4) to calculate transportation-induced CO2 emissions in Kayseri province and results are provided in Table 7. In the calculation of CO2 emissions, emissions were separately calculated for CO2, CH4, and N2O gases, and CO2 emission equivalents were then calculated. The relative position of Kayseri province in terms of petroleum products and LPG utilization in the average of Turkey is presented in Figure 2. Turkey signed the Paris Agreement on 22nd of April, 2016 together with 175 countries under the framework of the UN in New York and committed 21% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions in transportation, energy, industrial processes, land-use change, forestry, and waste sectors between the years 2021 – 2030 [31]. For Kayseri province between the years 2016-2018, the total carbon quantity originated from CO2eq emissions was calculated as 4.702,101 Gg CO2eq. In 2016, emissions were calculated as 1483.970 Gg CO2eq for CO2, 39.609 Gg CO2eq for CH4, and 27.90 Gg CO2eq for N2O. In 2017, emissions were calculated as 1601.633 Gg CO2eq for CO2, 40.673 Gg CO2eq for CH4, and 68.275 Gg CO2eq for N2O. Finally, in 2018, values were calculated as 1616.498 Gg CO2eq for CO2, 40.933 Gg CO2eq for CH4, and 68.967 Gg CO2eq for N2O. The total CO2 emission footprint of greenhouse gases was calculated as 1585.87 Gg CO2eq for 2016, 1710.581 Gg CO2eq for 2017, and 1726.398 Gg CO2eq for 2018. The variation of

Table 4. Conversion factors are determined based on the net calorie values of the fuels [18]

Carbon Global Carbon Emission Factor Oxidation Warming (tC/TJ) Rate Potential

Table 7. Fuel Consumption-Originated Carbon Footprint Quantity of Kayseri Province

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Total Transportation Induced Emission Value Sigma J Eng Nat Sci, Vol. 40, No. 4, pp. 868–876, December, 2022

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Figure 2. Province-based (a) Petroleum and (b) LPG consumptions in Turkey [30]. of Australia and Finland, with high vehicle age average, respectively as 0.31 Mt CO2 and 0.05 Mt CO2 [34]. Coşkun and Oktay (2020) conducted a study in Turkey to investigate vehicle-induced carbon footprint and reported vehicle-induced carbon footprint in 2016 as 217.77 Mt CO2eq. Researchers reported that Istanbul had the greatest carbon footprint (0.108 Mt CO2eq) and Tunceli province had the lowest value [35]. Petroleum and LPG-induced carbon emissions of Kayseri province were respectively calculated as 437.219,49 ton (17th in Turkey) and 96.381 ton (11th in Turkey) and these values were around the country averages (Figure 1).

Conclusion

Figure 3. Variation of GWP CO2eq Emission in Kayseri city. GWP CO2eq Emission in Kayseri city as a function of years is illustrated in Figure 3 Greenhouse gas emissions of some other provinces of Turkey were studied previously. For instance, transportation-induced CO2 footprint was reported as 1453.954 Gg for Eskisehir province in 2016 [32], as 471.84 Gg for Isparta province in 2016 [33] and Sivas province as 683.17 Gg CO2eq in 2016, 736.26 Gg CO2eq in 2017, and 783.26 Gg CO2eq in 2018 [17]. The N2O and CH4-induced total carbon quantities were respectively calculated as 199.533 and 121.215 Gg CO2eq. Nakamoto et al. (2019) investigated the relationships of global CO2 quantities with vehicle age and reported transportation-induced carbon footprints of the USA, Germany, and Japan respectively as 13.3 Mt CO2eq, 8.1 Mt CO2eq, and 7.2 Mt CO2eq. Researchers reported carbon footprints

The transportation-induced CO2 footprint of Kayseri province was calculated with the use of the above-given equations and the Tier 1 approach. Data were supplied from TUİK and Energy Market Regulatory Authority. There are recent increases in both the number of vehicles and fuel consumptions in Kayseri province. Carbon footprint calculations conducted with the use of the Tier 1 approach and resultant values are provided in this study. As can be inferred from the results, there is an increase in total greenhouse gas emissions between the years 2016 – 2018. Increasing CO2 footprints were observed with increased fuel consumption. According to 2018 TUİK data, Kayseri province had 17th rank in petroleum consumption and 11th in LPG consumption. It was inferred from these values that Kayseri province had 1.57% contribution to the country’s CO2 footprint for petroleum consumption and 2.32% for LPG consumption. As it was in all sectors, measures should be taken also in the transportation sector to mitigate carbon emissions. Considering the sustainable urbanization against global climate change, the following measures could

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be recommended to mitigate CO2 emissions and the negative effects of global warming; • Development of low carbon emission technologies and mitigate the utilization of fossil fuels like petroleum, natural gas, and coal. • Utilization of low CO2 emission fuels and development of hybrid technologies. • Increasing the use of bioenergy-originated fuels in transportation. • Increasing the capacity of sink area (afforestation, forestation, wetlands, marshes, etc). • Increasing the use of renewable energy resources as fuel. • Promotion of public transportation. Insufficient institutional and financial capacity in the transport sector is one of the important results of the underdevelopment of public transport in most Turkey cities including Kayseri. This can only be solved by establishing strong political willingness in urban transport policy-making to overcome the private lobby pressure. To reduce carbon footprint in the city, the first and important thing that the Government should do in this regard is to improve public transportation systems in the city, so that more and more people switch to public modes. Another important step to minimize carbon emission is to inform the public about carbon footprint. By providing awareness about carbon emissions, the public should be encouraged to turn to carbon-free modes of transportation, such as public transportation, electric vehicles, or bicycles that do not cause carbon emissions, rather than the use of private vehicles unless necessary. It is also thought that giving the public the habit of walking or cycling short distances will provide a significant decrease in carbon emissions. Besides, it is very important to make consumers informed of the impact of their preferences and actions, and the possible ways of reducing their carbon footprint, through the media and public activities.

Acknowledgment

The authors express their sincere thanks to the Turkish Statistical Institute (TÜİK) and Energy Market Regulatory Authority (EPDK) for the data used in the present study.

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