Impact of biodiesel blends on performance emissions and waste heat recovery of diesel engine driven

Abstract

Keywords: Biodiesel Blends; Brake Thermal Efficiency; Calorific Value; Diesel Engine; Emission Characteristics; Exhaust Gas Temperature; Fuel Consumption; Waste Heat Recovery

Introduction

There is a critical need to find alternative and clean energy sources as well as energy conservation measures to improve the efficiency of various systems in order to ensure a sustainable future due to the rapidly expanding energy demand, limited energy supplies, and rising emissions. To increase the effectiveness of I.C engine, new control for combustion systems [1], thermal insulation [2], and WHR (waste heat recovery) [3] have been proposed. Since around 66% of total fuel energy goes with cooling water and exhaust gas, WHR technologies retain the ability to significantly reduce IC engine environmental impact while increasing fuel efficiency and engine performance. In a cogeneration system, a prime mover and a heat recovery system work together to provide the majority of the power and heating demands [4-6]. The main benefit of a combined heating and power (CHP) system is its potential to improve fuel utilization efficiency because less fuel is needed to develop the same amount of mechanical and thermal energy in a single cogeneration unit than it would to do so using conventional technologies [7]. Governments are promoting the utilization of CHP system not just in commercial sectors but also in residential ones due to the lower fuel consumption and emissions connected with cogeneration systems. Electric and thermal power may be supplied to homes, hospitals, workplaces, and hotels using micro-CHP systems (<50 kW) [8]. Because of their durability, greater efficiency at smaller power ranges, and lower cost compared to alternative prime movers like fuel cells, Stirling engines, and micro-turbines, internal combustion engines are appropriate for small-scale cogeneration applications. In an IC engine, heat can be recovered from engine cooling water, lubricating oil, and exhaust gas [9]. Additionally, by connecting the engine to a generator, electrical energy may be generated. Depending on the required output frequency, conventional CHP units operate at a set engine speed. Power output is controlled by altering the engine load to meet user demand. By regulating the speed of the ICE to its optimal efficiency, larger efficiency and smaller fuel consumption for part load operation might be obtained [10]. Fu et al. [11] emphasize the significance of conducting an exergetic and energetic study of the IC engine under aligning characteristics for the sake of determining the appropriate operating condition of the engine. They deduced that operating factors like engine speed and load have an impact on how different types of energy are distributed. Additionally, they came to the conclusion that recovering both exhaust gas and cooling water energy might greatly increase engine fuel efficiency. Agnese Magno et al. [12] investigate how a biodiesel blend affects the exhaust emissions and energy distribution of a small diesel engine. Using a common-rail engine with three cylinders and 1028 cc, the experiment was conducted. Pure diesel and a 20% by volume biodiesel blend were used in the tests (B20). It was discovered that the energy flows and the braking fuel conversion efficiency are not considerably

impacted by the addition of 20% by volume biodiesel to diesel fuel. However, under typical operating situations, a biodiesel blend enables the reduction of combustion noise and pollutant emissions. The need for cleaner fuels, including biodiesel, has been prompted by the emission reduction target [13–15]. In comparison to diesel fuel, the biodiesel molecule’s oxygen concentration promotes better combustion, resulting in fewer release of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and particulate matter (PM) [16,17]. On the other hand, using biodiesel as fuel typically results in higher NOx emissions, according to the literature [18,19]. Jena and Misra [20] investigated the impact of oxygenated fuels on the exergy and energy efficiency of a diesel engine from an energetic perspective. They came to the conclusion that additional study should be done on the energy potential of biodiesel. A thorough examination on energy balance at various test sites using alternative fuels was also recommended by Abedin et al. [21]. When compared to diesel fuel, biodiesel is more environmentally benign since it produces less HC (hydrocarbons), CO (carbon monoxide), and PM [22]. Particle emissions analysis has demonstrated that burning biodiesel produces smaller particles than burning diesel fuel [23]. Because NOx emissions depend on several parameters [24,25], a clear pattern was not discovered for them. The use of EGR (exhaust gas recirculation), in particular, has a significant impact on NOx emissions and can cause biodiesel combustion to produce NOx emissions at levels comparable to diesel fuel [25]. From an energy standpoint, Jena et al. [26] investigated how oxygenated fuels affected the energy and efficiency of a CI engine. Their findings suggested that adding more oxygen to the fuel improves combustion and decreases irreversibility. However, they came to the conclusion that more thorough research is required to fully understand the energy potential of biodiesel. A thorough analysis of energy balance at several test sites was also recommended by Abedin et al. [27] to determine the viability of alternative fuels. A heterogeneous catalyst (CaO) was used by Aparna Singh et al. [28] to optimize the performance and emission characteristics of a CI engine powered by Jatropha biodiesel. Findings indicate that a diesel engine running on B20 performed almost as well as one running on diesel. Elkelawy et al. [29] investigated the performance, combustion, and emissions characteristics of a DI-diesel engine running on mixtures of algal biodiesel, diesel, and n-pentane. The performance and emissions of the engine will suffer as a result of the addition of biodiesel to the diesel. Pentane added to biodiesel blends generally enhances engine performance and emission characteristics. Medhat Elkelawy et al. [30] investigated the combustion and emission characteristics of a CI engine while introducing nanoparticles to diesel-biodiesel blends. The efficiency of the thermal brake is increased while the diesel engine is operating in the presence of nanofluid emulsions. Moreover, CO and HC emissions are significantly reduced by nanofluid

emulsions. All nanofluid combustion results in rising NOx emissions. An experimental investigation on the performance, emission, and combustion behaviour of diesel, WCO biodiesel, and cyclohexane blends in a DI-CI engine was conducted by Medhat Elkelawy et al. [31]. The findings demonstrate that the addition of cyclohexane significantly enhances both engine performance and emissions. Using the life cycle analysis of biodiesel fuels made from soybean, Jatropha, Calophyllum inophyllum, and microalgae conducted a comparative study by Sudhakar Uppalapati et al. [32]. The findings suggest that GHG emissions were strictly controlled throughout the manufacturing of soybean biodiesel, but microalgae-based biodiesel had low net energy value, net renewable energy, and energy ratio throughout its life cycle. The flexibility, thermodynamics, and techno-economic analysis of a coal-fired CHP system were performed by Jiajia Li et al. [33]. In comparison to the base case, the author found that the maximum power production is improved by 6.35% above the rated power and that

Energy Analysis

In an IC engine, the combustion process produce heat energy due to burning of the fuel. A portion of total fuel energy is transformed into useful work, and the remaining portion is dissipated into the atmosphere through cooling water and exhaust gas in accordance with the first law of thermodynamics. Due to frictional losses and engine heat radiation, the remaining portion is lost. According to the second law of thermodynamics, about one-third of the fuel’s energy has to be released into the atmosphere in the form of waste heat. This waste heat can also be used to enhance the thermal efficiency of the I.C. engine. The energy balance of the engine and its surrounding can be expressed as follow [35]: (1) The total fuel energy ( ) is obtained with the help of fuel mass flow rate ( ) and calorific value of fuel ( ): (2) BP is the brake power it is calculated by using engine speed (N) and torque (Tb) [12]: (3) where N is expressed in rev/s and Tb is expressed in N-m. The heat rate of heat lost in cooling water ( ) is calculated with the help of following formula [12] (4) Where is the cooling water mass flow rate; the cooling water specific heat. and cooling water inlet and outlet temperature, respectively. The available rate of heat in the exhaust gas of the I.C engine can be calculated with help of following equation [21] (5) Where and are the mass flow rate of the intake air and fuel, is the exhaust gas specific heat [21]. And is the environment temperature. The rate of heat recovery from the exhaust gas is obtained with the help of following formula [12] (6)

Where mass flow rate of water is enter into the heat is specific heat of water entering into recovery system, and are temperature of water heat recovery system. at the inlet and outlet of the heat recovery system. The brake thermal efficiency, (BTE) is calculated with help of following formula [12] (7) The overall efficiency (η) of a cogeneration system is calculated as follow (8) Measuring Devices Airflow flow measurement The mass flow rate of air is measured with the help of an air box. At the entrance of the air box, an orifice is attached, and the exit of the orifice is connected with the inlet manifold of the diesel engine with the help of a pipe, as shown in Figure 4. A U-tube manometer with a proper scale is also connected to the air box. During engine operation, pressure inside the air box decreases due to the suction stroke of the engine. The pressure difference was measured with the help of a manometer, and the mass of air per second sucked by the engine was obtained by the equation (9). (9) Where ρa, ρw, Ao, hw and Cd are density of air, density of water, cross sectional area of orifice , manometer reading and coefficient of discharge respectively. Fuel flow measurement The fuel flow rate was measured with the help of the burette method. In this method, a properly scaled glass burette, as shown in Figure 4, was connected to the fuel tank and engine via a tee valve. The fuel line was initially linked to both the engine and the burette so that diesel could be filled into the burette without interrupting the delivery of fuel to the engine. The tee valve was adjusted so that diesel began to flow from the burette to the engine in order to measure fuel consumption. The time taken to consume a certain amount of fuel is recorded using a stopwatch. The volume flow rate of fuel consumed can be calculated by dividing the time taken by the amount of fuel consumed. Water flow measurement The rotameters are used to measure the flow rate of cooling water in Figure 1. Rotameters are based on the variable area principle. In a narrowed measuring glass tube, the float is free to travel up and down. The float will

take up a position where the buoyancy forces and weight are balanced as it moves upward. The instantaneous flow rate is measured by the vertical location of the float, as represented by the scale. To achieve the correct flow rate, the rotameter valves must be opened gradually and carefully. The measurement tube may be damaged if the float jumps abruptly, which must be avoided. A line on the scale is given for alignment, and it should correspond with the white line on the measuring tube. Temperature measurement The temperature of exhaust gas, cooling water, and water flow through the heat exchanger was measured with the help of a k-type thermocouple, as shown in Figure 2a. The working principle of a thermocouple is based on the Seeback Effect. To measure the temperature of any fluid, the probe of the thermocouple is fixed in the fluid whose temperature is to be measured, and the other end of the thermocouple is connected to the temperature indicator through a wire. The temperature indicator shows the temperature reading on a digital screen, as shown in Figure 2b. Emission measurement The emission characteristics of the diesel engine were measured by using AVL DiGas 444N exhaust gas analyzer. The AVL DiGas 444N exhaust gas analyzer is shown in Figure 3. The AVL DiGas 444N is a device that measures the relative quantities of various gaseous components like CO2, NOx, CO and HC in exhaust gases from diesel engines. In this device, a small diameter plastic tube is connected to an

Figure 3. AVL DiGas 444N gas analyzer. emission probe. And the CO2, NOx, CO, and HC emission levels were measured by inserting the emission probe of the gas analyzer into the engine exhaust pipe.

Experimental Setup

A water cooled single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine is used as the prime mover for the combined heating and power generation system. Table 1 illustrates the technical specifications of the engine used in this study. The engine output shaft is connected to the eddy current dynamometer (model: AG80; maker: SAG) for variation of engine load. The load sensor of the dynamometer gives a load signal to the digital indicator, and as a consequence, the load is shown digitally in kilograms. The fuel consumption is the amount of fuel consumed per unit time it is measured with

help of fuel burette and stop watch. The cylinder and the cylinder liner are separated by a water jacket. A centrifugal pump is used to circulate water to cool the engine. The flow rate of the cooling water was measured using rotameters. All readings are taken at steady-state conditions. Throughout the test, the compression ratio and speed of the engine were maintained at 17.5:1 and 1500 rpm, respectively. The all performance measuring devices such as fuel burette, eddy current dynamometer, load controller and rotameter are shown in the Figure 4. To extract all data from the experimental setup for the engine performance study, the data acquisition system and IC engine software 9.0 was used. The emission characteristics of the diesel engine were measured by using an exhaust gas analyser. The CO2, NOx, CO, and HC emission levels were measured by inserting the

emission probe of the gas analyzer into the engine exhaust pipe. The AVL DiGas 444N exhaust gas analyzer is shown in Figure 3. A double pipe heat exchanger was attached to the engine exhaust to extract the heat from the exhaust gas, and water was used as the heat transfer fluid for this heat exchanger. The double pipe heat exchanger was with help of

two concentric pipe. The diameter of inner and outer pipes are 38 mm and 76 mm respectively as shown in line diagram Figure 5a .The setup is equipped with thermocouples at various points to measure the temperatures of the water and exhaust gases, as illustrated in Figure 5b. The cogeneration (CHP) system was developed by connecting a diesel engine with a double pipe heat exchanger.

Results And Discussion

On the test rig, the experimental investigations are conducted using the biodiesel blends and diesel described above. In this part, the findings of the engine performance, emission characteristics, and waste heat recovery from exhaust gas are thoroughly analyzed. Engine Performance Brake thermal efficiency Figure 7 depicts the fluctuation of BTE with load for various blends of Eureka Sativa biodiesel. The BTE rises with load for all biodiesel-diesel blends, reaching its maximum values at 80% of the test engine’s full load. Due to higher friction losses and heat losses under full load conditions, the BTE decreases at full load [39,40]. Maximum values of BTE are 31.87%, 25.97%, 26.06%, 27.97% & 26.87% for B0, B10, B15, B20, and B25 respectively. The accompanying graph illustrates how diesel has a greater BTE than all blends of biodiesel and diesel at all loads due to biodiesel’s lower calorific value (CV) [41]. Additionally, Figure 7 demonstrates that the BTE rises as biodiesel content rises, reaching a maximum value of 27.97% at B20. This is possibly because there is oxygen available in the biodiesel molecules (the methyl ester of the oil), which participates in burning and improves combustion efficiency [42]. The test findings also show that the BTE is lower at B25 (26.87%) than at B20 because of the leaning effect brought on by too much oxygen in the fuel [42].

Figure 7. BTE variation with engine load for different blends of biodiesel. Brake power Figure 8 illustrates the distinction in BP produced by various blended fuels with a change in load. Since applied torque is a function of load and increases as load increases, BP grows as load increases [43,57]. Therefore, the maximum B.P for diesel and all biodiesel blends is observed at full load, and it is 4.75 kW for B0, 4.28 kW for B10, 4.68 kW for B20, and 4.64 kW for B25. It is clear from the accompanying graph that diesel has more brake power than biodiesel, since the brake power of a diesel engine significantly depends on calorific value and that diesel has a larger calorific value than biodiesel [44]. However, the B20 (4.68 kW) has the highest maximum brake power among all the biodiesel blends due to the effective combustion that takes place in this blend as a result of the additional oxygen molecules that are present alongside the biodiesel molecules [42]. Brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) The variation in BSFC with load is shown in Figure 9 which shows that BSFC for diesel as well as all blends of

present in biodiesel (i.e., the methyl ester of the oil), which further improves the fuel’s combustion efficiency by taking part in the combustion process and raising the power output, requiring less fuel to produce the same amount of power [46]. But the results also show that B25 has a higher BSFC than B20, which is due to the fact that the mixture gets leaner as the mass percentage of oxygen in biodiesel exceeds a specific threshold, which causes incomplete combustion and increases the amount of fuel needed to provide the same amount of power [45]. Emission Characteristics

Figure 8. Brake power variation with engine load for different blends of biodiesel.

biodiesel decrease with load. The lowest values of BSFC are obtained at 80% of the test engine’s maximum load, for all biodiesel-diesel blends. This is because greater friction and heat losses under full load conditions result in a decrease in net power [45]. The minimum values of BSFC are 0.250, 0.33, 0.32, 0.290, and 0.315 (kg/kW h) for B0, B10, B15, B20, and B25, respectively. Figure 9 shows that, at all loads, diesel has a lower BSFC than all blends of biodiesel. This trend was seen because, because biodiesel-diesel blends had a lower CV value than diesel, more biodiesel-diesel blends were needed to maintain the same level of power [45,58]. In addition, Figure 6 demonstrates that the lowest value of BSFC, attained at B20 among all biodiesel-diesel blends, is 0.290 kg/kW h. This is likely a result of the oxygen that is

Figure 9. BSFC variation with engine load for different blends of biodiesel.

NOx emission A rise in NOx emissions is seen with a rise in load for diesel and all blends of biodiesel, as depicts in Figure 10. Because NOx formation is mainly due to high combustion chamber temperature and excess oxygen availability during combustion. As the load rises, the combustion chamber temperature rises, producing more NOx [47]. The maximum NOx emission levels for B0, B10, B15, B20, and B25 at full load are 1212, 1320, 1343, 1282, and 1431 ppm, respectively. The emission of NOx increased with the proportion of biodiesel in the blend because of the oxygen that is present in biodiesel (i.e., the methyl ester of the oil), and the in-cylinder temperature increased with the proportion of biodiesel in the blend [4,49]. Although B20 had the lowest NOX emission of any biodiesel blend, it was still 5.78% higher than diesel. Because efficient combustion occurs as a result of the proper air-fuel mixture ratio for B20, the available oxygen in cylinder would be less as compared to other blends, which results in reduced NOx emissions. Ulusoy et al. [48] and Patel et al. [49] reported similar findings.

Figure 10. Nox variation with engine load for different blends of biodiesel.

CO2 emission With an increase in load, the CO2 content of the emissions rises. This may be understood by the fact that the amount of fuel consumed rises as the load does. Naturally, more CO2 is formed when increased fuel is used to provide the engine with additional heat energy [50,51]. Furthermore, as seen in Figure 11, when an engine burns a higher proportion of biodiesel, less CO2 is released into the atmosphere. This could be the result of biodiesel fuel having a lower carbon to hydrogen ratio than diesel, as shown by Murat Karabektas et al. [52]. The B20 has the highest CO2 emissions of any biodiesel blend, which is 1.69% lower than diesel’s highest CO2 emissions. The B20 (8.11%) exhaust emissions contain greater carbon dioxide concentrations as a result of efficient, nearly complete combustion as discussed in above section [53] (Shrivastava et al.).

Figure 12. CO emission variation with engine load for different blends of biodiesel.

HC emission As indicated in Figure 13, unburned hydrocarbon emission were also made for various loads. For diesel and all of its blends, it can be seen that the amount of unburned hydrocarbon (HC) rises as the load increases, which may be because the load increases fuel consumption [45]. The maximum HC emission levels for B0, B10, B15, B20, and B25 at full load are 108, 113, 119, 102, and 123 ppm, respectively. The graph shows that B20 has the lowest HC emission (102 ppm) due to efficient fuel combustion, which is consistent with the findings of Shrivastava et al. [53].

Figure 11. CO2 emission variation with engine load for different blends of biodiesel.

CO emission The formation of CO is due to the incomplete combustion of fuel. As seen in Figure 12, the emission of CO rises for diesel as well as biodiesel as the load rises from 0% to 100%. Since result is taken at constant rpm, the engine nearly always inhales a fixed amount of air, but the quantity of fuel increases with each escalation in load [4]. As a result, the air-to-fuel ratio falls, which raises the CO level due to incomplete combustion. Among all biodiesel blends, B20 had the lowest CO emissions due to efficient combustion a result of the proper air-fuel mixture ratio for B20. A similar study was reported by Chaudhari et al. [54].

Figure 13. HC emission variation with engine load for different blends of biodiesel.

Waste Heat Recovery Parameter Exhaust gas temperature Figure 14 illustrates how engine loads and various biodiesel-diesel blends affect the temperature of exhaust gases. For diesel as well as biodiesel blends, the EGT increases with load because additional power is needed to handle greater loading, and additional power requires more fuel [55]. The EGT rises as a result of the burning of more fuel because there is more heat available in the combustion chamber [56, 57]. The maximum exhaust gas temperatures observed at 100% load are 265 °C, 298 °C, 314, 340 °C, and 365 °C for pure diesel, B10, B15, B20, and B25, respectively. Above readings shows that the EGT rises as the percentage of biodiesel in the blends increases, and the highest maximum EGT is 365 °C at B25, which is 100 °C greater than the EGT of pure diesel. The unburned fuel in the premixed combustion phase and the protracted porous nature of biodiesel both increase the temperature of exhaust gases [58].

output produced by the CHP system rises with engine load, as can be shown in Figure 13. Diesel, B10, B15, B20, and B25, respectively, have maximum total energy outputs of

Conclusion

In this study, the effects of pure diesel and various biodiesel blends are investigated on the energy output and

exhaust emissions of a CHP system prime movered by a diesel engine. Tests were done using pure diesel fuel and four different biodiesel blends that were 10%, 15%, 20%, and 25% by volume under steady state conditions and under various loads. The impact of Eureka Sativa biodiesel blends on performance, emission characteristics, and waste heat recovery of diesel engine is investigated. From the current investigation, the following inference can be made: • The B.P. and BTE increase as the percentage of biodiesel in the blend increases, while the BSFC decreases. However, among all biodiesel blends, B20 (20% Eureka sativa oil biodiesel + 80% pure diesel) has the highest B.P. and BTE, while BSFC is the lowest, with the exception of pure diesel, which has 4.75 kW, 27.97%, and 0.290 kg/kW-h. The BTE of the B20 blend is 4.13% smaller than diesel fuel, while the BSFC of B20 is 0.04 kg/kW-h greater than diesel. • The emissions of NOx, CO2, CO, and unburned HC rise with engine load for diesel and all blends of biodiesel. The emission parameters increased as the percentage of biodiesel increased, with Nox, CO, CO2, and HC all increasing, whereas the B20 blend had the most favorable emission characteristics of all blend combinations except diesel. In comparison to pure diesel, B20 emits 5.75% more NOx, 0.86% less CO2, 8.33% less CO, and 5.55% less HC. • EGT increases with engine load as well as the proportion of biodiesel in the diesel and biodiesel blends. As a result, compared to 1.1 kW for pure diesel, waste heat availability for B25 rises to 1.80 kW. • The overall efficiency of the CHP system rises with load for all biodiesel-diesel blends, reaching its maximum values at 80% of the test engine’s full load. The maximum overall efficiency of a CHP system is 42.42 % for diesel fuel. The B25 has the highest overall efficiency (38.49%) among all tested blends which is 1.93 % lower than pure diesel. The maximum overall efficiency of the system due to waste heat recovery increased by 7.55% to 11.12% as the percentage of biodiesel increased from 0 to 25 % in the blends. • Hence it can be concluded that B20 is the best fuel among all biodiesel blends in terms of engine performance and emission characteristics. Whereas B25 is a better fuel in terms of WHR and overall cogeneration unit efficiency.

rise, and it may surpass the overall efficiency for pure diesel. So the performance of CHP systems for different blends of Eureka Sativa biodiesel along with additive n-pentane may be considered a future scope of this research.

Future Work It can be observed that the efficiency of the overall CHP system is higher for pure diesel, even though the waste heat recovered increases with the increased proportion of biodiesel. This is because the thermal efficiency of only diesel engines is higher for pure diesel than all bends of biodiesel. So to increase the thermal efficiency of engines for biodiesel blends, an additive like n-pentane may be used, as described by Medhat Elkelawy et al. [29]. Because of this, the overall (CHP system) efficiency for biodiesel blends will

There are no ethical issues with the publication of this manuscript.

Nomenclature

CHP BSFC WHR DI CI BP BTE BSFC CV EGT PM HC ppm I.C Engine Cp KOH

Combined heating and cooling Brake specific fuel consumption Waste heat recovery Direct Injection Compression ignition Brake Power Brake Thermal Efficiency Brake Specific Fuel Consumption Calorific Value Exhaust Gas Temperature particulate matter hydrocarbons parts per million Internal Combustion Engine Heat carried by exhaust Specific Heat Mass Flow rate of air Mass Flow Rate of Fuel Potassium hydroxide

Data Availability Statement

The authors confirm that the data that supports the findings of this study are available within the article. Raw data that support the finding of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

Conflict Of Interest

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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