Nano-additive blends examination of performance and emission profile of CI engines fuelled with wast

Abstract

Keywords: Aluminum Oxide Nanoadditive; Compression Ignition Engines; Emission; Performance; Waste Cooking Oil

Introduction

Fossil fuels are largely used in compression ignition engine; it happens to be a naturally existing substance. The need for replacement of fossil fuels has been an issue to look into due to the dangerous emission in compression ignition engines. In addition, the demand for fossil fuels is continuously increasing globally there by resulting in a rapid depletion of fossil fuels deposits [1 An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a type of heat engine that uses an oxidizer (usually air) and a combustion chamber that is a part of the working fluid flow circuit to burn fuel. The internal combustion engine’s rotor, nozzle, turbine blades, and pistons are frequently subjected to direct force from the expansion of the high-temperature, high-pressure gases created during the combustion process. This force transfers chemical energy into mechanical energy that can be used to move the component across a distance [2]. Ahmad et al., and Carraretto et al., recalled that Diesel engines are compression ignition engines which are usually used to power various types of vehicles such as: Automobiles, Trains, Ships and Airplanes. They are also used to power Irrigation pumps and in an extension used to produce electric power. Combustions of fossil diesel in theses engines produce emissions that have serious negative effect on the ecosystem and the human health. To overcome these problems, global effort exists to develop clean substitute fuels that are easily available and technically feasible [3,4]. According to Demirbas, renewable energy sources have demonstrated a high potential for availability, and biodiesel has become the most widely used alternative fuel to fossil diesel [5]. On the other hand, Palash et al., Mofijur et al., and Mofijur et al. observed that the use of biodiesel in CI engines is met with certain limitations, such as a slight decrease in brake-specific fuel consumption, slightly poor fuel atomization, marginally higher density, lower cloud and pour points, piston ring sticking, issues with cold starting, and higher NOX emission [6–8]. On the other hand, Kadarohman et al. found that the limitations of biodiesel can be addressed by using certain fuel modification techniques, such as the addition of fuel additives like nanoparticles or the use of hybrid fuel [9]. Shaafi and Velraj et al., revealed that among the recent fuel modification methods, nanoparticles additions have emerged to be novel and promising; thus, many researchers have investigated the impacts of nano additives addition on the performance and emission characteristics of Internal combustion engines [10–18]. Produced from vegetable oil and other organic materials, biodiesel is an alternative fuel that bears a lot of similarities to fossil diesel. It operates in the current diesel engines using a fuel based on vegetable oil (soy or canola oil), with no changes in hardware. Transesterification is one way to produce biodiesel. The increasing demand for fossil fuels has led to a greater awareness of how quickly they are

depleting. This means that using an effective and less polluting diesel fuel substitute will be necessary to address its effects. Because of its benefits to the environment and economy, biodiesel has been the fuel of choice for diesel engines during the past 20 years. Still a lot of work has to be done for further enhancement of biodiesel as a fuel. Raghuveer et al. and Chen et al. produced biodiesels from palm kernel, the biodiesel produced by them was made through base-catalyzed transesterification of the palm kernel oil with alcohol [19, 47]. Fatty acids are gotten from the transesterification process, which is then converted to alkyl esters through acid catalysis. Non-edible Jatropha oil was also employed by Anand and Sadhik to produce biodiesel through standard transesterification process [20]. They made use of viscometer to determine the kinematic viscosity of the fuel blends at c, and also carried out a density check through the use of digital density meter. Avagyan et al. also analyzed the benefits of algae for biodiesel production and sustainable development; and submitted that Microalgae biomass production has accounted for 65–85% of the overall cost of biofuel [21]. They also analyzed microalgae and macro algae cultivation and harvesting, with a description of the complexities involved in algal biofuel production. Keskin et al. investigated fuel additives impact on Biodiesel; and reported that metallic fuel additives improved the pour point and viscosity values properties of biodiesel [22]. The Datura biodiesel is a perfect replacement to diesel because this is derived from indigenous sources and is renewable. Nevertheless, due to its high viscosity and lower calorific value, it cannot be used directly in the diesel engine [23]. Many researchers have also conducted studies regarding the impact of fuel additives and on engine combustion, performance, and emission characteristics, according to Taghizadeh-Alisaraei, Rezaei-Asl, and Devarajan et al. [24, 48]. Shaafi and Velraj, for example, investigated the combustion, performance, and emission characteristics of an engine running on two modified fuel blends: D80SBD15E4S1 (diesel-soybean oil-based biodiesel-ethanol blends) and B20 (diesel-soybean oil-based biodiesel), with alumina (Al2O3) acting as a nano-additive. It was noticed that the cylinder pressure arising from combustion and the heat release rate were higher than those of diesel fuel. The presence of oxygen in the soybean oil-based biodiesel and the better mixing capabilities of the nano particles must have been responsible for the reduction of CO and UHC; and slight increase of NOx at full load condition [25]. Gumus et al. looked into the effects of adding nanoparticles of cupric oxide (CuO) and alumina to fossil-diesel fuels. Additionally, the impacts of the additives on engine emissions and performance were examined. By including the nanoparticles, the characteristics of storage and combustion were enhanced. By adding alumina and cupric oxide to pure diesel, engine torque and brake power output were also marginally boosted [26]. Another study by Guru et al. empirically investigated the impact of adding copper, magnesium, manganese, and calcium to diesel fuel on quality of fuel ignition, efficiency, and

pollution. Along with the amounts of pollutants including SO2, CO2, and CO, they also looked at the number of fuels in two scenarios: pure diesel and diesel with additives [27]. Researchers have specifically studied a number of performance parameters. Debbarma and Misra, for example, fueled compression ignition engines (CIE) using a blend of neat diesel (ND) and iron nanoparticles (INP) [28]. The results showed that the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) decreased by 1.55% for ND+INP and 2.71% for PB20+INP, while the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) increased by 2.06% for PB20+INP and roughly 0.36% for ND+INP. Experimental research on cerium oxide-mahua oil was conducted by Ramarao and Bharathkumar on a single-cylinder, air-cooled, four-stroke direct injection diesel engine [29]. Brake specific energy consumption (BSEC), exhaust gas temperature (EGT), and brake thermal efficiency (BTE) were among the metrics used to assess the performance characteristics. When the load was increased, the mahua biodiesel-Ce02 blend’s BTE was found to be at its maximum, and at lesser loads, it tended to decrease. Praveen et al. [30] conducted an experimental study to assess the efficiency and emission characteristics of compression ignition engines using exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) and mixes of Calophyllum and Inophyllum biodiesel with TiO2 nanoadditives. A volumetric technique was used to combine 20% of Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel with 80% diesel (B20) to create the Calophyllum Inophyllum biodiesel-diesel blend. The outcome revealed a notable decrease in exhaust gas circulation as well as an increase in brake thermal efficiency. Fasogbon and Asere studied the effects of soybean methyl ester on the performance characteristics of compression ignition engine, they ran the CI engine on various biodiesel-petrol diesel blends (0/100, 10/90, 20/80, 30/70 and 40/60), they found out the performance of CI engine was the best at B20 (blend 20/80) [2]. Praveen et al studied the effect of biodiesel-diesel fuel blend on compression ignition engine [30]. The study showed that the biodiesel-diesel fuel blend decreased engine performance and increased its emission characteristics. Gurusala and Selvan experimented the emissions characteristics of a compression ignition (CI) engine fueled with waste chicken fat biodiesel with alumina nanoparticles as an additive [31]. They observed a significant reduction in hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emissions after the experiment. Fasogbon studied environmental friendliness of melon oil methyl ester in internal combustion engines; with the findings that the fuel is a near perfect environmentally friendly one [32]. Pradipta et al; 2022 assessed combustion characteristics of a 4-stroke compression ignition dual-fuel engine using a blend of diesel-Karanja biodiesel with variations of engine loadings. With the result that, the dual-fuel fired engine, indicates apex point of net heat release rate and marginal cylinder pressure curve from top dead centre. And the highest peak cylinder pressure recorded for Diesel-5DEE-PG

(6.68 MPa) at 15° after TDC, as compared to Diesel only (6.11 MPa) at 9° after TDC [33]. El-seesy et al studied the Influence of Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Additives into non-edible biodiesel-diesel fuel blends on Diesel engine performance and emissions, they found out that multi walled nanotube helps to improve engine performance parameters [34]. Pandian et al. investigated the effect of TiO2 nanoparticles on mahua biodiesel (BD100) at 100ppm (BD100T100) and 200 ppm (BD100T200); it was observed that (BD100T200) gave a reduction of 9.3% for CO, 5.8% for HC, 6.6% for NO and 2.7% for a smoke when compared to neat mahua biodiesel [35]. Anand et al. demonstrated that engine performance and emissions were significantly improved when 25 to 50 ppm of alumina nanoparticles, with a size of 51 nm, were added to Jatropha biodiesel fuel [36]. Arock-iasamy et al. tested the impact of a nanoparticle additive at a dosage level of 30 ppm in Jatropha biodiesel using a single cylinder diesel engine. Using neat diesel as the basis fuel, performance and emission parameters were examined. The findings showed a 9% decrease in NOx emissions, a 17% decrease in smoke opacity, a 33% decrease in HC emissions, and a 20% decrease in CO emissions. Additionally, the research revealed a 5% increase in brake thermal efficiency [12]. Sadhik and Anand combined carbon nanotube at 25, 50, and 100 ppm with a Jatropha methyl ester water emulsion. With a single cylinder diesel engine, they were able to reduce NOx emissions by 29% and smoke emissions by 28% [37]. An experimental examination was conducted by Sadhik et al. and Amit on alumina nanoparticles blended at 25 and 50 ppm in a water diesel emulsion. Along with a little drop in HC and CO emissions, there was a notable 40% reduction in smoke opacity and a 27% reduction in NOx [38, 39 The performance and emissions characteristics of a diesel engine running on a diesel-soybean oil -based biodiesel mix B20 with alumina (Al2O3) as the nano additive were investigated by Ojeda et al. and Shaafi et al. The discovery was made that the biodiesel derived from soybean oil had higher cylinder pressure and heat release rate than diesel fuel. This led to the hypothesis that the reductions in CO and HC emissions were caused by the oxygen present in the biodiesel and the enhanced mixing abilities of the nanoparticles [40, 41]. Hoseini et al., studied, the effects of graphene oxide (GO) nano-particles on power, exhaust gas temperature (EGT), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs), and nitrogen oxides (NOx), of a diesel engine fueled with Oenothera lamarckiana biodiesel. With the results that GO inclusion increases power and EGT significantly. It also significantly reduces CO (∼5%–22%) and UHCs (∼17%–26%); but slightly increases CO2 (∼7%–11%) and NOx (∼4%–9%) emissions [42]. Junshuai LvORCID et al., reviewed and summarized the recent research progress of nanoparticles as additives for diesel-biodiesel fuel blends. They described in detail the excellent properties of nanoparticles, and summarized

/ discussed the preparation methods. Additionally, they examined the effects of a number of widely used nanoparticles on the performance of combustion and emissions of harmful substances, including CO, NOx, UHC, and emissions from brake-specific fuel consumption, as well as the effects of diesel-biodiesel fuel blends. They also talked about the effects of nano-additives on internal combustion engines, the environment, and human health. This paper’s work can make a significant contribution to the fuel industry’s use of nanomaterials. The authors of the study arrived at the conclusion that their research could facilitate the effective selection of appropriate nano-additives for internal combustion engines, hence promoting low-emission features and efficient combustion [43]. Devaraj et al., discussed the effect of nano particles on engines performance and emission parameters and engine life in their paper. The paper also discussed the effect of different size and dosage of nano particles on diesel engine behaviour; and the preparation of nanofluid, several characterization methods and enhancement of biodiesel stability via various techniques [44]. Burning fossil fuels in the presence of an oxidizer, such as air, releases damaging greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in addition to converting the chemical energy in molecular bonds into mechanical energy that can be used. Vehicles powered by lithium-ion batteries and hydrogen are two of the several green transportation options that are soon to be available. Researchers have however investigated the potential of nanoparticles fuel additives as a possible solution the harmful greenhouse gas emission. Previous studies in this direction however show that extensive fundamental and applied studies have been done on impacts of addition of cerium oxide, iron-strontium, graphene and copper to biodiesel and its blends on performance, combustion, and the reactivity of the resulting emission by internal combustion engines. Literature is sparse on the inclusion of alumina nanoparticles in biodiesel and its blends with diesel. To this end, this paper contributorily studied the effect of alumina (Al2O3) nanoparticles as an additive to diesel-biodiesel blends on the performance and emissions characteristics of a compression ignition engine. Future study can however investigate the toxicity of nanoparticles. The Cost analyses of nanoparticles inclusions should also be investigated vis a vis one hundred percent CO2 taxed fossil fuels and other alternative ‘renewable’ fuels.

Diesel engine employed was directly coupled to an eddy current dynamometer as shown in the Figure 1. A mobile AVL flue gas analyzer was used to determine the emission characteristics of the combustion products (Table 1). Table 1. Test engine specifications (Kama; air cooled diesel engine) Engine Variables

Experimental Setup

The test engine is a four-stroke single cylinder, direct injection, air cooled Compression Ignition engine; and the detail of the engine specification employed is as shown in Table 1. The engine was run under ambient temperature of 22 OC and atmospheric pressure of 878 Mbar. In order to determine and measure the engine load and torque, the

Fuel Preparation In this experiment, a 250 mL conical flask was filled with 10.5 mL of used cooking oil, which was measured and heated to 50 °C. Potassium hydroxide pellet (0.25 g; catalyst concentration of 0.5 percent) and methanol (63 mL; mole ratio of oil to methanol of 1: 6) were combined to create a potassium methoxide solution inside the 250

mL conical flask. After vigorous stirring, the potassium hydroxide pellet completely dissolved in the fluid. After heating the potassium methoxide solution to 60 degrees Celsius, it was added to warm leftover frying oil and vigorously stirred with a stirrer for 50 minutes. The mixture was left to settle for 24 hours in a separating funnel. After that, warm water was used to wash the biodiesel in order to remove any last bits of soap and glycerol from the funnel. This was carried out up until the biodiesel was covered by the clear water in the separating funnel. The aluminum oxide and biodiesel-diesel fuel mixes were combined in an ultrasonicator to create the nano additive fuel blend. By dispersing the nano additive throughout the base fuel using the ultrasonicator technique, the nano additive was able to return to the nanoscale range. As illustrated in Figure 2, the nano additive particles were weighed to a predefined mass fraction of 5 g/l and then distributed throughout the biodiesel-diesel for 15 to 30 minutes using an ultrasonicator set to a frequency of 25 kHz. The same process was repeated for the mass fraction of 10 g/l to prepare the aluminum oxide-biodiesel fuel blends fraction of 10 g/l to prepare the aluminum oxide-biodiesel fuel blends. The density, Flash point, Cetane Index and Calorific value of each fuel blends were determined immediately after the fuel preparations according to ASTM standard. Table 2 and 3 presents the all-fuel blends properties measured according to ASTM standard guidelines. Stability of each fuel-blends was 3 h after preparation. Experimental Procedure The engine was run for 10 minutes for each blend to ensure the removal of remnants in the fuel line. After the initial analysis and error detection, some of the tests were

Figure 2. Pictorial view of blends in the ultrasonicator. repeated. The amount of flywheel power (P) available in the engine flywheel (brake power) is equal to P ¼ 2pTN/60000 (kW), where T (Nm) is torque available in the flywheel and N (rpm) is the engine speed. The experiments in this work were conducted on four engine speeds of 500 rpm, 1000 rpm, 1500 rpm, and 2000 rpm under full load with three replicates. The torque, power, fuel consumption, ambient temperature, ambient pressure, and environmental humidity were recorded during each test. Following the automatic recording of torque and engine speed by the dynamometer with a connected control panel, the engine power is calculated. The output torque and engine rotation speed have a significant impact on the engine power. The amount of gasoline (measured in grams) needed to generate one kW-hour of real work in the engine is known as specific

Table 4. The accuracies of the measurements and the uncertainties in the calculated results Variables

Results And Discussion

Fuel Blends Characterizations The determined physicochemical properties of the produced WFO based biodiesel and its blends are as stated in Table 2, while that of of WFO based biodiesel blends and Al2O3 Nano additives are as stated in Table 3. It could be seen in Table 2 that as the percentage composition of the biodiesel increases in the earlier part 0 - 40 % increase, the density increases, cetane index increases, while the flash point decreases. For the percentage composition of the biodiesel higher than 40 %, the density decreases, cetane index increases and flash point increases. For all the blends B0,

where the ± standard uncertainty indicates approximately a 68% confidence interval (2)

Table 2. Physicochemical properties of biodiesel and its blends Properties

13. The introduction of aluminum oxide into the blends

helps to reduce the emission of CO, this is because the Al2O3 introduces more oxygen into the combustion chamber which helps to reduce the incomplete combustion of carbon. At low engine torque (25 NM), the CO emissions of B0, B10, B20, B30, B40, B50, B60, B70, B80, B90, B100 reduced by 5.3% ,6.67%, 14%, 10.5%, 5.9%, 6.25%, 7.1%, 14.3% ,7.7%, 9.1% and 11%. Also, at high engine torque (100 NM), the amount of emissions reduced by 2.04%, 4.8%, 11.76%, 7%, 8%, 4.2%, 8.3%, 9.1%, 5.26%, 10.5% and 6.25%. The results agree favourably with Debbarma and

Figure 13. A graph of CO against Torque when 5g/l of nano-additive was introduced into the blends.

Figure 14. A graph of CO against Torque when 10g/l of nano additive was introduced into the blends.

Plot of NOx against Torque for pure biodiesel-diesel blend Figure 15 shows graph of NOx against torque. NOx is formed as a result of high temperature in the combustion chamber. The increase in blend ratio leads to an increase in the NOx emissions. This can be as a result of high cetane number of the biodiesel. Also, the increase in NOx emission could be as a result of double bond molecules present in the biodiesel which leads to a higher adiabatic temperature. The high temperature in the chamber could also have been caused as a result of increased engine speed, which enables the nitrogen in the air to form NOx in the combustion chamber. The high cetane number causes an increase in the bonding of the biodiesel, also the double bond molecules in the biodiesel causes a rise in the combustion temperature, this is as a result of the difficulty in the breaking of the double bond. The works of Abdel-Razek et al., 2017

[45], Sadhik and Anand, 2010 [47 and Hosseini et al., 2017 [49] agreed favourably to these results.

Figure 15. A graph of NOx against Torque for pure biodiesel-diesel blend.

Plot of NOx against Torque when 5g/l of Nano additive was introduced into the blends Figure 16 shows the graph of NOx against torque. The introduction of Aluminum oxide Nano-additive reduced the NOx emissions in the compression ignition engine. This reduction can be due to the catalytic activity of the Nano-additive, the catalytic activity enables the reaction in the combustion chamber to take place faster, as the reaction in the chamber speeds up, the double bond in the biodiesel takes less time to break. The fuel spent less time in the chamber, this therefore gives room for an unnecessary increase in the combustion temperature in the combustion chamber simply because the rate of reaction is faster. At low engine torque (25 NM), the NOx emissions of B0, B10, B20, B30, B40, B50, B60, B70, B80, B90 and B100 reduced by 16% ,25% ,28.6%, 7.7%, 5.9%, 5.0%, 4.3%, 4.2%, 3.8% and 3.2% and at high engine torque (100 NM), the NOx emission reduced by 3.45%, 8.7%, 16%, 3.1%, 2.78%, 2.6%, 2.5%, 4.76%, 2.3%, 4.3% and 4.0%. The works of Sadhik and Anand, 2010 [36], Sadhik and Anand, 2012 [38], Sadhik and Anand, 2014 [48] and Hosseini et al., 2017 [49] agreed favourably to the results.

Figure 16. A graph of NOx against Torque when 5g/l of Nano additive was introduced into the blends.

Plot of NOx against Torque when 10g/l of Nano additive was introduced into the blends Figure 17 shows the graph of NOx against torque. It exhibits a similar characteristic with the 5g/l. The extra 5g/l of aluminum oxide gives room for a further decrease in the amount of NOx produced. At low engine torque (25 NM), the amount of NOx reduced by 25%, 25.1%, 42.9%, 15.4%, 14.3%, 11.7%, 10%, 8.6%, 8.3%, 7.6% and 6.5% for blends of B0, B10, B20, B30, B40, B50, B60, B70, B80, B90 and B100. At high engine torque (100 NM) the amount of NOx reduced by 10.3%, 13%, 32%, 9.4%, 5.6%, 5.3%, 5.13%, 9.52%, 6.82%, 6.4% and 8.0%. These findings agreed favourably with the works of Bet-Moushoul et al.,[16], Debbarma and Misra, [28], Pandian, [35], Sadhik and Anand, [36], Arul Mozhi Selavn, et al., [61], Basne et al [62], Asalekar et al, [63] and Gowda et al,[64].

Figure 17. A graph of NOx against Torque when 10g/l of Nano additive was introduced into the blend.

Conclusion

This work studied the combinational effects of blends of diesel, waste cooking oil-based biodiesel: B0 to B100 on CI engines; at 10 % incremental step, and aluminum oxide (Al2 O3) nanoparticles additive with dosages of 5g/l and 10g/l on each fuel blends. From our findings, the following inferences are drawn: (i) The presence of nano additive in blends of diesel and waste cooking oil-based biodiesel, improves the performance and emission characteristics of compression ignition engine (ii) The percentage increase of biodiesel in the pure biodiesel-diesel blend at higher engine speeds, gives a decrease in the CO emissions, brake-specific fuel consumption, and an increase in NOx emissions, brake power and brake thermal efficiency (iii) Blend B20+10g/l gave the best result for performance and emissions characteristics at all investigated speeds and torques, as it increased brake power and BTE by 9.7% and 5% respectively, compared to the pure diesel; and reduced the BSFC by 38%, and CO and NOx emissions by 20.6% and 16% respectively compared to pure diesel.

Thus, in general, it is safe to conclude that, for top performance and emission characteristics of CI engines; pure diesel-waste cooking oil-based biodiesel blend with aluminum oxide nano additive in the proportion of B20 +10 g/l, could be used to fuel compression ignition engines. Recommendation It is recommended that the stability of nanofluid based additives through ultrasonic vibration, addition of surfactants and pH control, be investigated. It is further recommended that effect of peak cylinder pressure and heat release rate in CI Engines due to effect of ignition delay and nanofluid based diesel-biodiesel blends calorific values be studied.

Nomenclature

B0 B0 + 5 g/l B0 + 10 g/l B10 B10 + 5 g/l B10 + 10 g/l B20 B20 + 5 g/l B20 + 10 g/l B30 B30 + 5 g/l B30 + 10 g/l B40 B40 + 5 g/l B40 + 10 g/l B50

One hundred percent fossil diesel One hundred percent fossil diesel plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive One hundred percent fossil diesel plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive Ten percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend Ten percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive Ten percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive Twenty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend Twenty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive Twenty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive Thirty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend Thirty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive Thirty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive Forty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend Forty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive Forty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive Fifty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend

Fifty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B50 + 10 g/l Fifty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B60 Sixty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend B60 + 5 g/l Sixty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B60 + 10 g/l Sixty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B70 Seventy percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend B70 + 5 g/l Seventy percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B70 + 10 g/l Seventy percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B80 Eighty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend B80 + 5 g/l Eighty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B80 + 10 g/l Eighty percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B90 Ninety percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend B90 + 5 g/l Ninety percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B90 + 10 g/l Ninety percent biodiesel in diesel-biodiesel blend plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B100 One hundred percent biodiesel B100 + 5 g/l One hundred percent biodiesel plus 5 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive B100 + 10 g/l One hundred percent biodiesel plus 10 g/l of aluminum oxide Nano-additive CI Compression Ignition Engines CO Carbon monoxide NOX Nitrogen Oxide EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature

Data Availability Statement

The authors confirm that the data that supports the findings of this study are available within the article. Raw

data that support the finding of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

Conflict Of Interest

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethics

There are no ethical issues with the publication of this manuscript.

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