Effect of strain rate on the tensile properties of 3D printed PLA specimens with fused deposition m
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Journal of Advances in Manufacturing Engineering 2024, Vol. 5, Issue 2, pp. 37-46; doi.org/10.14744/ytu.jame.2024.00006
Abstract
Keywords: Strain rate; fused deposition modeling (FDM); polylactic acid (PLA); digital image correlation (DIC); tensile testing.
Introduction
Additive manufacturing (AM), or 3D printing, stands out as a highly multifunctional and promising technology in advanced manufacturing. AM includes various processes, as discussed by Wong and Hernandez [1] such as stereolithography (SLA), fused deposition modelling (FDM), laminated object manufacturing (LOM), selective laser sintering (SLS), laminated engineered net shaping (LENS), and electron beam melting (EBM). Notably, FDM is recognized
as one of the most extensively utilized methods for working with thermoplastic polymeric materials. Utilizing this technique involves the incremental deposition of layers. FDM has distinguishable characteristics as, highlighted by Singh et al. [2], including its user-friendly interface, cost-effectiveness, and environmentally sustainable characteristics, which make it advantageous in the domains of prototyping and manufacturing. According to Kristiawan et al. [3], it was revealed that a predominant 51% of products manufactured using AM technology belong to the cat-
*Corresponding author. *E-mail address: yilmaz.cagatay@agu.edu.tr Published by Yıldız Technical University Press, İstanbul, Türkiye This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
egory of polymer-plastic filaments. This dominance can be attributed to the favorable characteristics of these materials, which not only meet essential criteria for utilization and advancement but also contribute significantly to enhancing the efficiency and manageability of FDM processes. Among the polymers employed in this technique, PLA stands out as a particularly noteworthy material for its widespread application and effectiveness in 3D printing applications. Recent studies have explored the impact of strain rate on the mechanical properties of PLA 3D-printed materials. For example, Ali et al. [4] investigated the relationship between strain rate and mechanical properties of 3D-printed PLA materials using various input parameters like infill density, build orientation, layer height, and strain rate, finding that the strain rate has a moderate impact on the mechanical properties, contributing about 13.56% to the overall mechanical behaviour, with higher strain rate (10 mm/min) improving mechanical properties such as modulus, ultimate tensile and yield strength, toughness, and resilience. The Taguchi design suggested that an optimal strain rate of 5 mm/min, combined with 100% infill density and a
0.1. mm layer height, could yield better results, particularly
in improving resilience by 21.83%. Similarly, Hodžić et al. [5] investigated the influence of strain rate on the tensile properties of various FDM materials, including PLA, across a range of strain rates - 0.5 mm/min to 100 mm/min. The findings reveal a linear rise in tensile and yield strength as strain rates escalate, underscoring the material's robustness under dynamic loading conditions. Additionally, Elastic modulus exhibits an ascending trend with elevated strain rates. As a noteworthy observation, a notable reduction in testing time with the increase in strain rates, such as PLA material testing time decreased up to 99.58%. Further, Vidakis et al.'s [6] investigated the strain rate sensitivity of five thermoplastic polymers, including PLA, using ASTM D638 – 14 for specific Type V specimens. The study explores the tensile properties of test specimens subjected to varying strain rates (10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mm/min). They observed similar increase in tensile strength, yield strength, and modulus with rising strain rates. The brittleness of PLA became more pronounced at higher strain rates, particularly at 50 mm/min. As a noteworthy observation, PLA's elevated strain rate sensitivity, suggesting the necessity for further exploration and potential enhancements. In related research, studies have explored the influence of strain rate on the mechanical properties of different filament materials used in 3D-printing, such as Ergene and Bolat [7] studied the effect of strain rate on the mechanical properties of FDM 3D printed polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) specimens, showing that while lower strain rates generally yield higher tensile strength and more ductile deformation, higher strain rates enhanced tensile strength for thicker layers but resulted in more brittle failure modes. Specifically, specimens with a 0.1 mm layer thickness exhibited peak tensile strength at lower strain rates, whereas thicker layers (0.2 mm and 0.4 mm) showed greater tensile strength at higher strain rates. Additionally, as strain rates increase, the deformation mechanism shifts from ductile to
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brittle. Furthermore, Wang et al. [8] studied the influence of infill parameters and tensile strain rate on the overall mechanical characteristics of polyamide-based composites reinforced with short carbon fibers (Onyx®) produced using FDM. The study involved strain rates— 2.78×10−4 mm/ min, 2.78×10−5 mm/min, and 2.78×10−6 mm/min. They reported enhanced tensile strength and elastic modulus at higher strain rates, though elongation decreased. Additionally, there was an observed increase in the relative energy absorption capacity with higher tensile strain rates. Hence, there is a strong correlation between higher rates and enhanced mechanical properties. Along similar lines, Wang et al. [9] studied the material polyurethane acrylate resin produced by Digital Light Processing (DLP) 3D printing, demonstrated that higher strain rates - 0.06 mm/min and
0.6. mm/min- improved the ultimate tensile strength and
elastic modulus in both tension and compression testing. Hence, these studies collectively investigated various AM 3D printing techniques and diverse polymer-plastic filaments, it becomes apparent that an intricate interplay exists between strain rate and mechanical characteristics within the realm of FDM 3D printed materials. The anticipated outcomes of escalating the strain rate include an increase in Ultimate Tensile Strength, Yield Tensile Strength, and Elastic Modulus. This study will investigate the influence of strain rate on the tensile properties of PLA material, with a particular focus on exploring strain rate values that have not been examined in the existing literature. Table 1 provides a comprehensive summary of the strain rate ranges investigated in existing literature. Upon examining the existing literature regarding FDM and PLA, it becomes apparent that considerable attention has been directed towards exploring the impact of 3D printing parameters on the mechanical characteristics of printed parts. In addition, the assessment of mechanical properties in these studies primarily relies on conducting mechanical tests, such as tensile testing, on samples produced with varying 3D printing parameters. This observation is supported by the findings of a study conducted by Hosseini et al.[19], highlighting that previous research has predominantly centered on examining the influence of 3D printing parameters on the mechanical characteristics of printed materials. While a few researchers have explored strain rate effects in polymer blends manufactured through conventional methods like injection molding with polycarbonate, scarce attention has been given to investigating the strain rate sensitivity of PLA polymers produced using FDM. Consequently, the main objective of this study is to investigate the influence of strain rate on the tensile properties of PLA material using Type V ASTM D638 – 14 specimen types. Three distinct strain rates, 0.8 mm/min, 2 mm/min, and 20 mm/min, corresponding to 0.0133 mm/s, 0.0333 mm/s, and 0.333 mm/s, respectively, were utilized. Both 0.8 mm/min and 2 mm/min fall within the medium strain rate range, whereas 20 mm/min is classified as a high strain rate. A tensile test was performed and analyzed using the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) method.
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Table 1. Overview of strain rates in additively manufactured (3D printed) models from literature
Crfrc
PLA: Polylactic acid; FDM: Fused deposition modelling; 3D: 3-Dimentional; PLA: Polylactic acid; ABS: Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene; PETG: Polyethylene terephthalate glycol; PA6: Polyamide 6; PP: Polypropylene; PUA: Polyurethane acrylate; DLP: Digital light processing; TPU: Thermoplastic polyurethane; PMMA: Polymethylmethacrylate; TPL: Twophoton lithography; FFF: Fused filament fabrication; CRFRC: Continuous ramie fiber reinforced biocomposites; PEEK: Polyetheretherketone; HAP: Hydroxyapatite; rGO: Reduced graphene oxide; CPE: Chlorinated polyethylene; CNT: Carbon nanotubes; TS: Thermoplastic sulfones.
Materials And Methods
Table 2. Cost effectiveness of the 5 types of ASTM-D638 standard
PLA specimens were produced using Fused Deposition Modeling. The initial phase involves the development of CAD models corresponding to the standardized dimensions outlined by ASTM D638 – 14 for Type V. Following this, the specimens were 3D printed, and preparatory steps, including surface preparation, were taken before conducting the tensile test. To analyze the test outcomes, the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) method is applied, utilizing the open-platform Ncorr application. The data obtained from Ncorr undergoes further processing and refinement using MATLAB – (R2022b MATLAB 9.13) – to compute the tensile properties for all specimens.
1.8. grams/0.60 meter
Specimen Design Model The selection of Type V specimen was decided by considering the required printing time and filament usage of the specimen when compared to Type I-IV. As displayed in Table 2, it is found that Type V is the most cost-efficient
ASTM-D638 type. Type V specimen dimensions followed the guidelines outlined in the ASTM- D638 – 14 standards, as illustrated in Table 3 and Figure 1. Utilizing SOLIDWORKS software – (SOLIDWORKS® - 2022), 3D models of the specified specimen type were created. The 3D model was converted to Stereolithography (.STL) file format, ensuring compatibility with the Raise 3D – (Raise3D N2 Plus) – printer.
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Figure 1. ASTM D638 – 14 type V test specimen. Table 3. ASTM- D638 – 14 Type V dimensions [23]
3D: Printing The choice of printing parameters was done as following the previous study of our lab [24] and outlined in Table 4. In this study, 18 PLA specimens were 3D printed with the PLA material specifications demonstrated in Table 5, with six specimens designated for each strain rate value. A
1. Kg/spool
quality control process was implemented by using a calliper, thoroughly examining the dimensions of the specimens to ensure compliance with the established ASTM- D638 – 14 standards. Successful printing was characterized by the absence or minimal presence of defects and a seamlessly smooth surface on the specimen. It is noteworthy that all printed specimens met these criteria. Table 6 presents the dimensional measurements for the printed specimens, specifically their width and thickness. The data indicate that the specimens consistently maintained an average width of 3.2 mm and an average thickness of 3.4 mm, with minimal variation across all samples. These results align with the findings of Bolat and Ergene [26], who examined the dimensional accuracy and surface quality of 3D printed tensile test samples made from PLA, PET-G, and ABS. They reported that PLA samples achieved the highest width accuracy, with an average accuracy level exceeding 97.7%, and exhibited the best surface quality (2.65 μm) due to PLA’s excellent bonding capacity. For DIC analysis during tensile tests, specimens were prepared by coating their surfaces with opaque white spray paint. The coating, typically 2-3 layers, was applied until uniform coverage. To fulfil DIC parameter needs, a black speckle pattern was manually added onto the white-coated
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Figure 2. Surface spackle pattern preparation of tested 18 specimens. surface, ensuring thorough coverage across all specimens. A soft-bristled toothbrush was utilized to create the speckle pattern. An example of this is shown in Figure 2. Tensile Testing Tensile tests were conducted on printed specimens using a Shimadzu testing machine. The machine operated at constant settings to avoid the influence of other testing parameters. Only the impact of strain rate on part behaviours and mechanical properties was studied. Strain rates of 0.8 mm/min, 2 mm/min, and 20 mm/min were employed. Each strain rate value was tested with six identical tensile specimens, and the results were represented by taking the mean values. The gauge length was precisely set according to ASTM D638 – 14 standards. For the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system, a high-resolution cell phone camera with a 26 mm focal
length, f/1.8 lens, 50-megapixel resolution, and 1080 pixels at 30 frames per second was mounted on a stable tripod at an optimal distance from the specimen. Careful consideration was given to ensure recording quality, with two tripods holding flashlights at the same distance as the camera to provide sufficient brightness. The recording duration was precisely synchronized with the tensile testing machine's operation, capturing the entire process from initiation to fracture occurrence. Ncorr Analysis Utilizing the open-platform Ncorr application, the DIC method was used to analyze recorded specimen data. Initially, the videos were converted into a series of images at 30 frames per second. For 0.8 mm/min, 61 to 340 images were analyzed, 2 mm/min had 25 to 138 images, and 20 mm/min had the fewest images, ranging from 10 to 19.
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Figure 3. Strain field obtained from Ncorr analysis (a) Eyy for strain rate of 0.8 mm/min (b) Eyy for strain rate of 2 mm/min (c) Eyy for strain rate of 20 mm/min. Table 7. DIC parameters DIC data Phone frame rate Video conversion rate
MATLAB facilitated the DIC analysis of these images. The Ncorr program was executed with the command "handles_ncorr = ncorr," enabling file compilation and accessing the program menu for image and DIC parameter arrangement. The analysis started with the selection of a reference image, representing the initial state. Subsequent images were then compared to the reference for deformation analysis within a defined region of interest (ROI). The DIC computation process includes adjusting several parameters like subset radius, subset spacing, number of threads, and seeds. A subset radius of 33 units, minimizing noisy strain data, a subset spacing of 1 unit, and both thread and seed numbers of 1 were chosen based on prior project results as well the requirements for the small size of Type V specimens, shown in Table 7. After analyzing displacement, the strain values were calibrated and scaled by converting pixel values to millimeters for measurable displacement. The computed strain values for Exx, Exy, and Eyy planes were saved in a MATLAB Data (.mat) file for additional analysis and processing. Exx is lateral strain, Eyy is longitudinal strain, and Exy is in-plane shear strain.
Figure 4. Strain rate 0.8 mm/min Ncorr results (a) Exx stress-strain curve (b) Eyy stress-strain curve (c) Average strain for Exx and Eyy. Post Data Analysis Processed through MATLAB, the Ncorr displacement analysis data, which includes information from the tensile machine and Ncorr, was imported. The tensile machine data, including force and stroke measurements over time, were used in stress calculation by dividing force by the specimen's cross-sectional area. The maximum stress for each tested specimen corresponding to strain rate values 0.8 mm/min, 2 mm/min, and 20 mm/min- was extracted to calculate the average Ultimate Tensile Strength for each strain rate value. For the Ncorr displacement data analysis,
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Figure 5. Strain rate 2 mm/min Ncorr results (a) Exx stressstrain curve (b) Eyy stress-strain curve (c) Average strain for Exx and Eyy.
Figure 6. Strain rate 20 mm/min Ncorr results (a) Exx stress-strain curve (b) Eyy stress-strain curve (c) Strain for Exx and Eyy.
strain values are refined by filtering out non-zero values in each frame and eliminating irrelevant zero values. Average strain (Exx and Eyy) for each frame is computed using the refined data. To align with the stress data, which has significantly more data points, the strain values were interpolated, facilitating the presentation of the stress-strain curve on the same graph.
age values of Exx and Eyy exhibit spiky behavior. These irregularities may stem from difficulties encountered in accurately detecting speckle patterns during the Ncorr displacement analysis. Figure 6 shows the Ncorr results for a strain rate of 20 mm/min, and similar spiky behavior is observed. This tendency could be attributed to fewer frames available for analysis due to the higher strain rate, indicating that faster displacements occur for the DIC analysis to detect. In Figure 7a, an evident linear increase in tensile strength is observed with the elevation of strain rate. At
0.8. mm/min, the average ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
is 40.41 MPa. This value rises to 46.57 MPa at 2 mm/min, reaching its maximum UTS at 20 mm/min with 52.62 MPa. This consistent strengthening pattern implies that the PLA material demonstrates an enhanced ability to withstand tensile forces under higher strain rates. The dynamic behaviour observed suggests that the material becomes progressively more robust and resilient as the applied strain rate increases. Based on Figure 7b, there is an increase in Elastic modulus as the strain rate increases. It increases from 1.54 GPa at 0.8 mm/min to 1.79 GPa at 2 mm/min, representing a rise of approximately 16.2%. The maximum value is observed at 2.21 GPa at 20 mm/min, indicating an increase of about 43.5% compared to the modulus at 0.8 mm/min. The observed incline in Elastic modulus with increasing strain rate suggests that the 3D printed PLA material's stiffness or resistance to deformation increases as the rate of applied force or strain increases. This implies that the mechanical behaviour of the PLA material is influenced by the rate at which stress is applied, with higher strain rates leading to a high stiff response. Figure 8 presents data on the ultimate strain and testing time for PLA material at different strain rates (0.8 mm/min, 2 mm/min, and 20 mm/min). Based on Figure 8a the PLA
Results And Discussion
Ncorr analysis of the DIC provided comprehensive strain and displacement data from the tensile test, including a 2D strain field (as shown in Fig. 3). Following post-data analysis, a set of three graphs were generated by the MATLAB code; the stress-strain curve of Exx, the stress-strain curve of Eyy, and the average strain curve of Exx and Eyy with respect to the time. Given that the study involved 18 specimens subjected to three different strain rates, various similar chart outcomes were obtained from each test. Consequently, this report focuses on discussing chart results from one specimen for each type to avoid redundancy. The results of Ncorr for a strain rate of 0.8 mm/min are illustrated in Figure 4. The graph clearly shows a decreasing trend in the Exx stress-strain curve, suggesting a reduction in specimen width under tensile force. In contrast, the Eyy stress-strain curve shows an upward trend, indicating elongation as tensile force is applied. The average strain values for Exx and Eyy are also provided. Notably, the Eyy strain demonstrates an increasing slope until the point of fracture, while the Exx strain decreases. The results of Ncorr for a strain rate of 2 mm/min are illustrated in Figure 5. Similar to the previous results, the Exx stress-strain curve decreases while the Eyy stress-strain curve increases with strain. However, there are noticeable inconsistencies in the data points of the stress-strain curves, presenting a scattered and noisy pattern. Likewise, the aver-
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Figure 7. (a) Ultimate tensile strength and (b) Eastic modulus for each strain rate.
Figure 8. (a) Ultimate strain (b) Testing time and for each strain rate.
material exhibited behaviour that aligns with the findings of Hodzic et al. [5], which indicate that the impact of increasing strain rate on PLA varies. This is reflected in the experiment results, where the ultimate strain decreases from 3.065% at 0.8 mm/min to 3.058% at 2 mm/min, followed by an increase to 3.074% at 20 mm/min. However, these variations are minimal, demonstrating that the influence of higher strain rate on 3D-printed PLA material is negligible. A notable increase in standard deviation is observed, attributed to significant variation in strain values resulting from necking in certain specimens, while others experienced immediate fracture. As anticipated, an increase in strain rate resulted in a reduction in the average testing duration, as shown in Figure 8a. Specifically, when the strain rate increased from
0.8. mm/min to 2 mm/min, the testing time for the PLA
material decreased from 183.83 seconds to 66.67 seconds, reflecting a 64% reduction. Furthermore, at a strain rate of 20 mm/min, the testing time further decreased to 11.17 seconds, representing a significant 94% decrease compared to the initial rate of 0.8 mm/min. This trend aligns with expectations, as higher strain rates typically lead to faster and more dynamic material responses during testing. The results of this study align with existing literature, showing that higher strain rates generally influence the mechanical properties of 3D-printed PLA materials. As strain rates increased from 0.8 mm/min to 20 mm/min, the ultimate tensile strength rose by 30%, consistent with findings by Ali et al. [4] and Hodžić et al. [5]. Moreover, Elastic modulus increased by 43.5% with higher strain rates, indicating greater stiffness. However, the ultimate strain before fracture showed negligible variation, suggesting that strain rate had little effect on the material's elongation. Additionally, higher strain rates significantly reduced testing time and resulted in more brittle material behavior, in line with studies by Vidakis et al. [6] and Ergene and Bolat [26]. Inconsistencies in data at higher strain rates may be attributed to challenges in accurately detecting speckle patterns during DIC analysis. These factors highlight the complexity of material behavior under varying strain rates. Overall, the study confirms that increasing strain rates enhance tensile strength and stiffness, while having minimal impact on ultimate strain, offering a deeper understanding of PLA's mechanical response under different testing conditions.
Conclusion
This study investigated the impact of strain rate on the mechanical properties of PLA material produced through FDM, employing strain rates of 0.8 mm/min, 2 mm/min, and 20 mm/min. DIC was used to assess tensile properties. The results revealed a consistent increase in Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) with higher strain rates, rising from 40.41 MPa at 0.8 mm/min to 52.62 MPa at 20 mm/min, showcasing the material's enhanced ability to withstand tensile forces. Concurrently, Elastic modulus exhibited a rising trend, increasing from 1.54 GPa at 0.8 mm/min to 2.21 GPa at 20 mm/min, reflecting an increase in stiffness with higher strain rates. On the other hand, Testing time decreased significantly with increased strain rates, dropping from 183.83 seconds at 0.8 mm/min to 11.17 seconds at 20 mm/min, a 94% reduction. The observed reduction in testing time at higher strain rates aligns with the dynamic nature of material responses during testing. Furthermore, ultimate strain values showed minimal changes, from 3.065% at 0.8 mm/min to 3.074% at 20 mm/min, indicating little to no influence of higher strain rates. These findings underscore the importance of considering strain rate sensitivity in the design and evaluation of 3D printed PLA, providing valuable insights for optimizing FDM processes and enhancing the material’s mechanical performance under dynamic loading condition, offering valuable insights that can guide future research in this area.
Data Availability Statement
The authors confirm that the data that supports the findings of this study are available within the article. Raw data that support the finding of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request. Author’s Contributions Sara Saeed Abdulrahman Eltahir: Conception, Design, Materials, Data Collection and Processing, Analysis and Interpretation, Literature Review. Roaa Gomaa: Conception, Design, Materials, Data Collection and Processing, Analysis and Interpretation, Literature Review. Çağatay Yılmaz: Conception, Design, Supervision, Data Collection and Processing, Writer, Critical Review.
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Conflict of Interest
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Use of AI for Writing Assistance AI not used for writing.
Ethics
There are no ethical issues with the publication of this manuscript.
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ELTAHİR, S.S.A.; GOMAA, R.; YILMAZ, Ç. Effect of strain rate on the tensile properties of 3D printed PLA specimens with fused deposition m. Journal of Advances in Manufacturing Engineering 2024, Vol. 5, pp. 37-46. https://doi.org/10.14744/ytu.jame.2024.00006