A combined experiment simulation study on temperature regime of roller compacted concrete applying f
Journal of Thermal Engineering 2020, Vol. 6, Issue 5, pp. 772-785; doi.org/10.18186/thermal.799443
Abstract
Keywords: Dam; Roller Compacted Concrete; Compressive Strength; Regression Equation; Response Surface; Contour Plot; Maximum Temperature; Thermal Stress
Introduction
Dam, which is one of the oldest artificial structures, has a responsibility for retaining water in small and large hydropower projects. So far, roller-compacted concrete (RCC) plays an important role in the modern construction of the hydraulic structure. China, a world leader in small and large hydropower projects, is home to the planet's largest hydropower potential at approximately 384 gigawatts, with roughly 20,000 large dams. In China, more than 10 million m3 of the RCC mixture are used annually in the construction of the hydro-technical structure and hydroelectric plants [1,2]. While the first RCC usage for the construction of the hydro-technical dam dates back to 1980 in Japan and about 40 RCC dams have been built [2] after that. Besides, the RCC has been used for building gravity dams in the United States since 1982. In that year, the first RCC dam was completed namely the Willow Creek Dam near Heppner in Oregon [3]. Like other developing countries and emerging economies, there has recently been a great demand for electricity in Vietnam, leading to an unprecedented boom in the construction of hydropower dam, which is also facilitated by the great natural hydropower potential in large power plants. Therefore, the issues of hydropower project construction are very relevant, great economic, and social importance in Vietnam [4–6]. The main characteristics of the five hydroelectric RCC dams in Vietnam recently are given in Table 1. At the same time, the application of RCC technology in the construction of the hydroelectric power project in Vietnam is accompanied by a number of serious problems. One of the major problems is an uncontrolled heat release during the hydration This paper was recommended for publication in revised form by Regional Editor Erman Aslan 1 Technology of Binders and Concrete, National Research Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Moscow, Russian Federation 2 Faculty of Civil Engineering, Hanoi University of Mining and Geology, No. 18, Pho Vien St., Bac Tu Liem Dist., Ha Noi City, Viet Nam 3 Hydraulics and Hydraulic Engineering Construction, National Research Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Moscow, Russian Federation 4 Institute of Techniques for Special Engineering, Le Quy Don Technical University, No. 236, Hoang Quoc Viet St., Bac Tu Liem D ist., Ha Noi City, Viet Nam 5 Civil Engineering, Ruhr Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany 6 Department of Rural Technology, College of Rural Development, Can Tho University, Campus II, 3/2 St., Ninh Kieu Dist., Can Tho City 900000, Viet Nam *E-mail address: lamvantang@gmail.com Orcid id: 0000-0002-4857-835X, 0000-0001-9723-5161, 0000-0002-4737-8524, 0000-0003-4670-3513, 0000-0003-0657-9159 Manuscript Received 14 October 2018, Accepted 01 January 2019
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020 process of cement, leading to excessive tensile stresses. The reason is that an appearance of extreme thermal gradients in massive hardening concrete leading to thermal cracking in concrete structures [7–10]. In addition, Fu et al. [11,12] reported much information regarding cracks occurring due to thermal stresses. Previous studies reported that the use of fly ash (FA) as a cement substitution resulted in a reduction of hydration heat release, thermal cracking, and production cost of concrete [13–15]. Therefore, FA has been widely used in different massive structures since then [16–18]. Table 1. The main characteristics of the hydropower RCC dams in Vietnam No.
In this paper, the preliminary proportion of the RCC mixture was calculated in accordance with the ACI 211.3R-02 standard. The optimal concrete mixture and maximum temperature of the 45 m high RCC dam were determined by the experiment planning method, Matlab computer program, Maple 13 and Midas Civil. Additionally, the mathematical model has adequately described the influence of the intensity concreting (IC) and the initial temperature of the concrete mixture (ITC). Further, the temperature regime of the RCC dam with the optimal proportion was also discussed.
Experimental Details
Materials Characteristics of the raw materials used in this study were determined in the laboratory according to the guidelines of the related standards with the results as follows: Type CEM I 42.5 N Portland cement (PC) from But Son factory (Vietnam) was used as a major binder material in RCC mixture. The maximum heat of the cement hydration is 309 J/g at 28 days. The physical and mechanical properties of the PC are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Physical and mechanical properties of “But Son” Portland cement Specific gravity 3.15
Time of setting Average diameter Specific (min) of cement grains surface area 2 (μm) (cm /g) Initial Final 29.58
The class-F fly ash (FA) sourced from locally TPP Vung Ang (Vietnam) was used as a cement substitution. The volume of the natural porous state is 572 kg/m3. The chemical compositions and the physical characteristics of the FA are given in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. Table 3. Chemical compositions of “TPP Vung Ang” FA Major elements (wt.%)
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020 Table 4. Physical properties of “TPP Vung Ang” FA Sieve size (µm)
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020 Quartz sand (QS) sourced original from Lo river in Vietnam with the volume of the compacted state is 1650 kg/m3 was used as fine aggregate in RCC mixtures. The QS had the fineness modulus and density of 3.1 and 2.62 g/cm3, respectively. Crushed limestone (CL) sourced from Vietnam with the particle sizes of 5–20 mm and 20–40 mm in a volume ratio of 60:40 and the density of 2.62 g/cm 3 and 2.65 g/cm3, respectively, was used as coarse aggregate in RCC mixtures. Local tap water (W) was used for both mixing concrete and curing of the test specimens. Experimental program The fully experimental program planning for this study is depicted in Figure 1, in which, the optimal RCC composition was determined by the mathematical experiment planning method with second-order. Mathematical methods are among the most widely used models in operational research and management science. The mathematical-experimental planning method was very useful in performing relationship tests between objects of study and building mathematical programming models or even deciding when such a model is applicable. Furthermore, the Midas Civil computer program based on the finite-element method was used to analyze the thermal behavior of the RCC dam. The desired outcome of this numerical analysis was to determine the spatial distribution of temperature at early-ages and maximum temperatures during the construction process. Test methods The preliminary proportion of the RCC mixture was firstly calculated following the procedures as described by ACI 211.3R-02 standard. The workability of the fresh concrete mixture was measured by means of Vebe time in accordance with BS EN 12350-3: 2009. The Ø150 × 300 mm cylindrical concrete specimens were prepared for compressive strength test in according to the guidelines of ASTM C39/C39M-14. The RCC samples were de-molded 24 hours after casting and cured at 20 ± 5oC in a water curing tank until testing time. The compressive strength test was performed at 28 days. The RCC composition was optimized by means of the mathematical experiment planning method with second-order for two factors. The maximum temperature of the RCC dam was calculated using the Midas Civil computer program. Evaluation of crack formation possibility in concrete at an early age was conducted basing on the magnitude of the maximum permissible temperature and maximum temperature arising inside. Effect of the IC and the ITC on the maximum temperature in dam during the construction process was evaluated by the mathematical experiment planning method with first-order for two factors.
Results And Discussion
Calculation of the preliminary concrete composition In the case of this study, the RCC properties were selected from the application of RCC technology in the construction of the hydroelectric power project in Vietnam and must possess the following requirements: (i) The workability of the RCC that measured by means of Vebe time device ranges from 15 to 20 seconds; (ii) The 28-day compressive strength of the RCC is greater than 21 MPa; (iii) The RCC has the water-resistant ability in the aquatic environment; (iv) FA is used to partially replace PC in the RCC mixture (FA/PC = 1.5 by volume); and (v) The relative volume of entrapped air is no more than 1%. Table 5. Mixture composition and properties of the fresh concrete mixture Concrete mixture composition (kg/m3)
W/B is water-to-binder ratio (by volume), where B = PC + FA Using the ACI 211.3R-02 standard, the preliminary composition of the RCC mixture together with fresh concrete properties and compressive strength of the hardened RCC are presented in Table 5.
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020 Optimization of the RCC composition by mathematical experiment planning method In this study, the achieved second-order regression equation of the objective function was the compressive strength with the application of the central composite rotatable design (CCRD) method for two factors. The CCRD method allows obtaining more accurate mathematical description by increasing the number of experiments at the center and special value of "star shoulder" = 2 = 1.414 [19,20]. Definition of the objective function and input factors for the experimental model description The compressive strength of the RCC specimen at 28 days, denoted as R28RCC (MPa), is considered as an objective function of this experimental model. The input variable factors are influenced by the RCC compressive strength, including the weight of each material (PC, QS, CL, W, and FA) required for 1 m3 concrete. In order to reduce the number of experiments, the weights of QS and CL were fixed to 633 kg/m 3 and 1553 kg/m3, respectively. Therefore, the input factors and their limitation were chosen as follows: x1 = FA/PC (FA-to-PC ratio) ranged from 1.25 to 1.75 by volume. x2 = W/B (water-to-binder ratio) ranged from 0.95 to 1.35 by volume. The input variable factors and their variation intervals are shown in Table 6. Table 6. Levels and intervals of varying factors of the experimental model Factors
0.15. and 0.05
Table 7. The matrix of the CCRD for two factors and concrete mixture compositions Trial No.
Hence, the number of experiments of the CCRD for the two factors were indicated by formula (1):
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020 where k is the number of factors (k = 2) and m is the number of trials that repeating at the center (m = 5 as suggested by Terwilliger et al. [21] and Williams [22]). Therefore, N = 22 + 2×2 + 5 = 13. The RCC compositions that calculated following the ACI 211.3 R-02 standard and central composite rotatable design method of the second-order for two factors are shown in Table 7 and the RCC compressive strength values at 28 days are presented in Table 8. The second-order regression, equation (2), was obtained from the Matlab computer program. The coefficient values, the response surface image, and the corresponding contour plot are shown in Figure 2. 28 Y28 = RRCC = 22.02 + 2.228x1 + 0.3427 x2 - 0.43x1 x2 -1.144x12 - 0.1757 x22
Figure 2. The coefficients (a) and response surface and contour plot of the second-order regression equation (2) for RCC compressive strength at 28 days (b) Checking the adequacy of this experimental model The Fisher criterion was used as part of the objective function in the mathematical-experimental method and was used to test regression coefficients for every model. The linear and non-linear parameters of the experimental model were estimated by the root mean square method. Table 8. Compressive strength of the RCC at 28 days Y28 = R28RCC (MPa)
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020 According to Wang et al. [23] and Tang et al. [24], the regression equation adequacy was checked by means of the Fisher criterion. The calculated value was indicated by equation (3): F0 =
where S ll2 is variance estimates the experiment reproducibility, determined by equation (4): m
where m is the number of repeated experiments at the center (m = 5), Yoj is the obtained value of the ith experiment at the center, Y0 is the average value of m experiments at the center, and S d2 is estimation of the inadequacy dispersion, determined by equation (5): N
where B is the coefficient numbers of the second-order regression equation, which were significant (B = 5), Yj is the observed value of the ith experiment, and Y j is the obtained value of the experimental function in accordance with the ith experiment. F ( f1 , f 2 ) is the Fisher criterion value, obtained from Wackerly et al. [25], with a significant level of =
0.05; f1 is the number of freedom degrees for residual variance ( f1 = N − B = 13 − 5 = 8) and f2 is the number of freedom degrees for estimating the observed variance ( f1 = m − 1 = 5 − 1 = 4) . Therefore, F0.05 (8, 4) = 6.041. For the regression equation (2): Sd2 = 0.579 and Sll2 = 0.110 (Table 8). Then F0 =
F0 = 5.244 < F0.05 (8, 4) = 6.041, this experimental model described by equation (2) was adequate. On the other hand, the Maple 13 computer program was used to determine the maximum value of the objective function. The RCC compressive strength at 28 days in the regression equation (2) depended on the input Opt factors of the FA/PC and W/B in the concrete mixture: Max Y28 = 23.1155 at x1Opt = 1.02658 and x2Opt = −0.28096 RCC Then, Max R28 = 23.1155 (MPa) at FA/PC = 1.705 and W/B = 1.108 (by volume).
Based on the above calculation, the concrete composition corresponded to the highest RCC compressive strength and optimal dosages of variable components was selected. The material consumption for one cubic meter, which was based on the regression equation (2), is presented in Table 9. Table 9. The optimum composition of the concrete mixture by using mathematical planning method and the highest compressive strength of the RCC at 28 days Weights of the materials for 1 m3 of concrete (kg)
95.15. 119
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020 Mathematical modeling for the effect of the IC and the ITC on the maximum temperature in the RCC dam during the construction process The Midas Civil computer program was used for determining the maximum temperature of the RCC dam with the optimal concrete mixture as given in Table 9. Simultaneously, using the first-order planning method for two factors, the effect of both the IC and ITC on the maximum temperature in the RCC dam was assessed. According to Aniskin and Chyk [26], the IC values of the RCC dams were selected from 0.2 to 0.6 m/day. In the RCC dams, the concrete temperature rises from the heat of cement hydration. The quick construction process and low concrete conductivity may be caused by the high thermal gradient in the interior mass and exterior dam surface, as well as thermal-stress. These thermally induced stresses may be significant enough to induce cracks in the RCC dam. The temperature distribution evolution in the dam by time and resulting thermal stress depends on the temperature analysis parameters, such as the environmental conditions, concrete properties, cement amount, lift thickness, temperature, and concrete pouring process [27–30]. RCC dam description The case study object was an RCC dam in Vietnam with approximately 45 m high and 1 m laid concrete layer thickness. A typical cross-section of the dam is displayed in Figure 3. So far, this hydraulic project, built in the summer, has been playing important roles in flood prevention, sedimentation reduction, irrigation, water supply, and power generation in Northern Vietnam. According to Aniskin and Chuc [31], the summer temperature in Northern Vietnam change according to equation (6): 2 o tair = 25 + 5sin ( C) 24
where tair is daily average air temperature (oC) and is time (hours).
Figure 3. A typical cross-section of RCC dam in Northern Vietnam The concrete heat release at the instant time was determined by equation (7) [27]: -
1 q.PC c..tmax .e 24 ; t ( ) = t max . 1- e- ; tmax = c. 24
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020 where q is total heat (W/m3), c is specific heat coefficient (J/kg.oC), PC is cement amount (kg), is concrete density (kg/m3), t() is concrete temperature in adiabatic conditions at the age of days (oC), tmax is temperature rise in the exothermic process under adiabatic conditions (oC), and α is a constant, depending on the concrete mixture casting temperature (α = 0.833, [27]). Table 10. Properties adopted for temperature analysis Properties
Coefficient of heat transfer from the exposed surface of concrete-air (W/m2.oC)
Material properties and environmental conditions The model attributes were primarily evaluated using the existing data and typical RCC attributes. Table 10 shows the RCC properties and the dam foundation, which were used as inputs to determine the temperature regime in the construction of the concrete dam, including Poisson’s ratio, modulus, specific heat, density, and thermal conductivity. The air convection coefficient, which is consistent without the moderate wind speed, was analyzed. Heat generation rate was adopted for the 95.15 kg PC + 119 kg FA in 1 m3 concrete (as shown in Table 9). Description of mathematical experiment planning method with first-order The objective function of this experimental model was the maximum temperature in the RCC dam
The input variables were chosen from the experimental design input parameters as follows: z1 - the IC, ranged from 0.2 to 0.6 (m/days). z2 - the ITC, ranged from 10 to 20 (oC). The input variable factors and their variation intervals are shown in Table 11. Table 11. Levels and intervals of varying variables of the experimental plan method with first-order for two factors Factors
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020 Table 12. Maximum temperatures occurring in the RCC dam body during construction Trial No.
The number of necessary experiments (denoted as N) in first-order planning was determined by equation (8):
where k is the number of factors (k = 2) and 1 is the number of this experiment at the center. Hence, N = 22 + 1 = 5 Figure 4 shows the three-dimensional (3D) finite-element mesh model of the RCC dam. By using the Midas Civil computer program, the maximum temperature that related to the IC and ITC occurring in the RCC dam body during construction time was determined with the values as shown in Table 12 and in Figures 5 – 9.
Figure 5. 3D temperature regime process in RCC dam body after 1800 hours from the beginning of construction at IC =
0.6. m/day and ITC = 20oС
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020
Figure 6. 3D temperature regime process in RCC dam body after 5400 hours from the beginning of construction at IC =
0.2. m/day and ITC = 20oС
Figure 7. 3D temperature regime process in RCC dam body after 1800 hours from the beginning of construction at IC =
0.6. m/day and ITC = 10oС
Figure 8. 3D temperature regime process in RCC dam body after 5400 hours from the beginning of construction at IC =
0.2. m/day and ITC = 10oС
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020
Figure 9. 3D temperature regime process in RCC dam body after 2700 hours from the beginning of construction at IC =
0.4. m/day and ITC = 15oС
Figure 10. The coefficients (a) and response surface and contour plot of the first-order regression equation (9) for the maximum temperatures during RCC dam construction (b) Moreover, the Matlab computer program determined the first-order regression equation (9) with the experiment objective function, coefficient values, response surface image, and the corresponding contour plot as presented in Figure 10.
The first-order regression equation (9) of experimental design showed that the maximum temperature arising in the RCC dam body during construction time increased with the IC and ITC. However, the effect of the ITC was much significant than that of the IC. According to equation (9), the maximum temperature in the RCC dam body obtained during the construction process was 35.85oC at input factors z1 = 1 and z2 = 1.
Conclusion
Based on the experiment-simulation results, the following conclusions can be drawn: The preliminary composition of the concrete mixture with a Vebe time of 18.5 seconds was calculated following the ACI 211.3R-02 standard and the concrete obtained compressive strength value of 21.45 MPa at 28-day. The composition of the RCC mixture was optimized, based on the second-order regression equation (2) of the RCC, using mathematical planning method for two factors of the Matlab computer program and Maple 13. The finite-element coding based on the Midas Civil computer program as performed in this study is capable to simulate the thermal response of the RCC dam of 45 m height and 1 m laid concrete layer thickness during well reasonable construction. The maximum temperature of 36.38°C was recorded at the central dam zone after 1800 783
Journal of Thermal Engineering, Research Article, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 772-785, October, 2020 hours from the beginning of the construction process. In addition, the effects of the IC (z1) and the ITC (z2) on the temperature regime of the RCC dam with the optimal concrete composition were simulated by the planning method for two factors and presented by the first-order regression equation (9). According to equation (9), the T maxRCC of 35.85°C was found at input factors z1 = 1 and z2 = 1. By using Midas Civil computer program in combination with the available and full laboratory data, it is possible to simulate the temperature distribution in the RCC dam body during construction time, which can be used in practical applications to avoid the crack appeared in the construction process and ensure the required safety and durability of the constructed hydraulic structures when they get into exploitation and use in the future.
Nomenclature
FA Fly ash RCC Roller-compacted concrete IC Intensity concreting ITC Initial temperature of the concrete mixture PC Portland cement QS Quartz sand CL Crushed limestone W Locally tap water FA/PC Fly ash-to-Portland cement ratio W/B Water-to-binder ratio 3D Three-dimensional CCRD Central composite rotatable design
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Tang, V.L.; Nguyen, T.C.; Igorevich, B.B.; Pham, N.A.; Huynh, T.P. A combined experiment simulation study on temperature regime of roller compacted concrete applying f. Journal of Thermal Engineering 2020, Vol. 6, pp. 772-785. https://doi.org/10.18186/thermal.799443