NaOH Molarity Effect on Mechanical and Hydrochloric Acid Resistance of Geopolymer Mortar Based on Slag

Mahmoud Ziada and Zahraa Mohammed Kamil Al-Mayali

doi:10.29187/2458-973X.1184

Article Open Access1 January 2025

NaOH Molarity Effect on Mechanical and Hydrochloric Acid Resistance of Geopolymer Mortar Based on Slag

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Mahmoud Ziada ¹, and Zahraa Mohammed Kamil Al-Mayali¹

¹Department of Civil Engineering, Istanbul Aydin University, Istanbul, Türkiye

Journal of Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies 2025, Vol. 10, Issue 2, pp. 8; doi.org/10.29187/2458-973X.1184

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Abstract

The present research investigates the influence of different sodium hydroxide (NaOH) molarities on the mechanical characteristics and hydrochloric acid (HCl) resistance of geopolymer grouts manufactured from ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS). Geopolymer mortars have attracted interest as sustainable substitutes for traditional cementitious materials due to their advantageous environmental effects and enhanced durability features. This study involved the fabrication of geopolymer mortar specimens by altering the NaOH molarity (M) from 6 M to 14 M. The mechanical and physical qualities were assessed using compressive strength, capillary water absorption, flexural strength, slump flow, and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) tests. Subsequently, the geopolymer mortar specimens with various molarities were exposed to 5% HCl to evaluate the HCl resistance of these specimens by subjecting the specimens to a 5% HCl solution for 28 days. Compressive strength, microstructural analysis, flexural strength, UPV, and mass changes tests were also conducted after 14 and 28 days of exposure to HCl. The results indicate that the molarity of NaOH substantially affects both mechanical strength and resistance to acid degradation. After 28 days of HCl exposure, an increase of 59.63% was observed in the compressive strength of the 10 M containing sample compared to the 6 M containing sample, while this increase decreased to 43.84% in the 14 M sample. This work highlights the essential significance of NaOH molarity in optimizing geopolymer formulations for use in harsh settings, providing insights into the equilibrium between strength enhancement and durability.

Keywords: Molarity; Hydrochloric acid; Geopolymer; GGBS; Mechanical properties

References

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Al-Mayali, M.Z.A.Z.M.K. NaOH Molarity Effect on Mechanical and Hydrochloric Acid Resistance of Geopolymer Mortar Based on Slag. Journal of Sustainable Construction Materials and Technologies 2025, Vol. 10, pp. 8. https://doi.org/10.29187/2458-973X.1184

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NaOH Molarity Effect on Mechanical and Hydrochloric Acid Resistance of Geopolymer Mortar Based on Slag

¹Department of Civil Engineering, Istanbul Aydin University, Istanbul, Türkiye

Abstract

References

Hanle LJ, Jayaraman KR, Smith JS. CO2 emissions proﬁle enhanced durability at this molarity. Nevertheless, of the US cement industry. Washington DC: Environmental this study did not include Energy Dispersive X-ray Protection Agency. 2004;10. Spectroscopy (EDS) and Fourier-Transform Infrared 2. Davidovits J. Geopolymers: Inorganic polymeric new Spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses, which could have materials. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry. oﬀered more information on the geopolymer’s el- 1991;37(8):1633–56.
Rowles M, O’connor B. Chemical optimisation of the compres- emental composition and molecular bonding. Later sive strength of aluminosilicate geopolymers synthesised by research could beneﬁt from using these analyses to sodium silicate activation of metakaolinite. Journal of Materi- build on the ﬁndings given. In addition, the study als Chemistry. 2003;13(5):1161–5. was conﬁned to one acid and slag type, underscor- 4. He J, Jie Y, Zhang J, Yu Y, Zhang G. Synthesis and charac- ing the necessity for additional research under varied terization of red mud and rice husk ash-based geopolymer composites. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2013;37:108–18. conditions. doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.11.010.
Zhang J, He Y, Wang Y, Mao J, Cui XC. Synthesis of a self-supporting faujasite zeolite membrane using geopolymer Acknowledgement gel for separation of alcohol/water mixture. Materials Letters. 2014;116:167–70. doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2013.11.008.
Zhang HY, Kodur V, Qi SL, Wu B. Characterizing the bond The authors of this study express their gratitude strength of geopolymers at ambient and elevated tempera- to the staﬀ of the Civil Engineering Laboratory at tures. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2015;58:40–9. doi:10. Istanbul Aydın University. 1016/j.cemconcomp.2015.01.006. JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES 2025;10:248–262 261
Shi X, Zhang C, Liang Y, Luo J, Wang X, Feng Y, Li Y, Wang 23. Younis KH. Inﬂuence of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) molarity Q, Abomohra AE. Life cycle assessment and impact corre- on fresh properties of self-compacting slag-based geopoly- lation analysis of ﬂy ash geopolymer concrete. In Materials. mer concrete containing recycled aggregate. Materials To- 2021;14(23). doi:10.3390/ma14237375. day: Proceedings. 2022;56:1733–7. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2021.
Ziada M. The eﬀect of nano-TiO2 and Nano-Al2 O3 on me- 10.411. chanical, microstructure properties and high-temperature 24. EFNARC. The European guidelines for self-compacting con- resistance of geopolymer mortars. Arabian Journal for Science crete speciﬁcation, production and use “the european guide- and Engineering. 2024. doi:10.1007/s13369-024-09570-w. lines for self compacting concrete”. 2005.
Pan Z, Sanjayan JG, Rangan BV. Fracture properties of 25. Chen R, Yang K, Qiu X, Zeng X, Wang P, Xu J, Chen J. Degrada- geopolymer paste and concrete. Magazine of Concrete Research. tion mechanism of CA mortar in CRTS I slab ballastless railway 2011;63(10):763–71. doi:10.1680/macr.2011.63.10. track in the Southwest acid rain region of China–materials
Huseien GF, Ismail M, Khalid NHA, Hussin MW, Mirza J. analysis. Construction and Building Materials. 2017;149:921– Compressive strength and microstructure of assorted wastes 33. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.017. incorporated geopolymer mortars: Eﬀect of solution molarity. 26. Cao C, Zheng SS, Hu WB. A survey on concrete struc- Alexandria Engineering Journal. 57(4):3375–86. doi:10.1016/ ture properties under acid rain erosion. Material Reports. j.aej.2018.07.011. 2019;33(11):1869–74. doi:10.11896/cldb.17110051.
Sheethal MKT, Wp PK, Mt PK. Development of high strength 27. Shi Z, Zhang J, Xiao Z, Lu T, Ren X, Wei H. Eﬀects of acid geopolymer concrete using low molarity NaOH. Int J Eng Res rain on plant growth: A meta-analysis. Journal of Environmen- Technol. 2015;4:194–200. tal Management. 2021;297:113213. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.
Rovnaník P. Eﬀect of curing temperature on the development 2021.113213. of hard structure of metakaolin-based geopolymer. Construc- 28. Ranjan P, Parvathi G, Sarathi R, Robinson RG, Harid N, tion and Building Materials. 2010;24(7):1176–83. doi:10.1016/ Griﬃths H. Inﬂuence of water, acid rain and bentonite on j.conbuildmat.2009.12.023. ionization characteristics of sand under lightning impulse
Gao K, Lin KL, Wang D, Hwang CL, Shiu HS, Chang YM, voltage. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insula- Cheng TW. Eﬀects SiO2 /Na2 O molar ratio on mechanical tion. 2021;28(3):897–905. doi:10.1109/TDEI.2021.009501. properties and the microstructure of nano-SiO2 metakaolin- 29. Chang J, Yang HP, Xiao J, Xu YF. Soil-water chemical tests based geopolymers. Construction and Building Materials. and action mechanism of acid rain inﬁltration into expansive 2014;53:503–10. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.12.003. soil. Chin. J Geotech Eng. 2022;44:1483–92.
Cheng TW, Chiu JP. Fire-resistant geopolymer produced 30. Liu J, Chen W, Xie G, Xie X, Ning Q, Bai X. Strength charac- by granulated blast furnace slag. Minerals Engineering. teristics and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy study of 2003;16(3):205–10. doi:10.1016/S0892-6875(03)00008-6. red mud-coal metakaolin geopolymer in a hydrochloric acid
Chithiraputhiran S, Neithalath N. Isothermal reaction kinet- environment. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. ics and temperature dependence of alkali activation of slag, 2023;18(7):100182. doi:10.1016/j.ijoes.2023.100182. ﬂy ash and their blends. Construction and Building Materials. 31. Arunachelam N, Maheswaran J, Chellapandian M, 2013;45:233–42. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.061. Ozbakkaloglu T. Eﬀective utilization of copper slag for
Rattanasak U, Chindaprasirt P, Suwanvitaya P. Development the production of geopolymer concrete with diﬀerent NaOH of high volume rice husk ash alumino silicate composites. molarity under ambient curing conditions. In Sustainability. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy, and Materials. 2022;14(23). doi:10.3390/su142316300. 2010;17:654–9. doi:10.1007/s12613010-0370-0. 32. Hakem Aziz I, Mustafa Al Bakri Abdullah M, Arif An-
Hwang CL, Huynh TP. Eﬀect of alkali-activator and rice uar Mohd Salleh M, Victor Sandu V. The incorporation husk ash content on strength development of ﬂy ash and of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) concentration and CaO-Si residual rice husk ash-based geopolymers. Construction and components on ground granulated blast furnace slag geopoly- Building Materials. 2015;101:1–9. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat. mers. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engi- 2015.10.025. neering. 2020;864(1):12005. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/864/
Hardjito D, Rangan BV. Development and properties of low- 1/012005.12005. calcium ﬂy ash-based geopolymer concrete. 2005. 33. Hanjitsuwan S, Hunpratub S, Thongbai P, Maensiri S, Sata V,
Chindaprasirt P, Silva PD, Sagoe-Crentsil K, Hanjitsuwan S. Chindaprasirt P. Eﬀects of NaOH concentrations on physical Eﬀect of SiO2 and Al2 O3 on the setting and hardening of and electrical properties of high calcium ﬂy ash geopolymer high calcium ﬂy ash-based geopolymer systems. Journal of Ma- paste. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2014;45:9–14. doi:10. terials Science. 2012;47:4876–83. doi:10.1007/s10853-012- 1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.09.012. 6353-y. 34. Verma M, Dev N. Sodium hydroxide eﬀect on the mechan-
Leong HY, Ong DEL, Sanjayan JG, Nazari A. The eﬀect of dif- ical properties of ﬂyash-slag based geopolymer concrete. ferent Na2 O and K2 O ratios of alkali activator on compressive Structural Concrete. 2021;22(S1):E368–79. doi:10.1002/suco. strength of ﬂy ash based-geopolymer. Construction and Build- 202000068. ing Materials. 2016;106:500–11. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat. 35. ASTM C109/C109M. Standard test method for compressive 2015.12.141. strength of hydraulic cement mortars (using 2-in. or [50 mm]
Criado M, Fernández-Jiménez A, De La Torre AG, Aranda cube specimens). 2021. MAG, Palomo A. An XRD study of the eﬀect of the SiO2 /Na2 O 36. ASTM C 348-21. Standard test method for ﬂexural strength of ratio on the alkali activation of ﬂy ash. Cement and Concrete hydraulic-cement mortars. Norma ASTM Internacional. 2021. Research. 2007;37(5):671–9. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2007. 37. ASTM C597. Standard test method for pulse velocity through
013. concrete. 2016.
Álvarez-Ayuso E, Querol X, Plana F, Alastuey A, Moreno 38. ASTM C 1585-13. Standard test method for measurement of N, Izquierdo M, Font O, Moreno T, Diez S, Vázquez E. rate of absorption of water by hydraulic-cement concretes. Environmental, physical and structural characterisation of 1585–13. doi:10.1520/C1585-13. geopolymer matrixes synthesised from coal (co-) combustion 39. Domone P. The slump ﬂow test for high-workability concrete. ﬂy ashes. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2008;154(1–3):175– Cement and Concrete Research. 1998;28(2):177–82. doi:10.
doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.10.008. 1016/S0008-8846(97)00224-X. 262 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES 2025;10:248–262
Jithendra C, Elavenil S. Inﬂuences of parameters on slump 48. Chen J, Jiang M. Long-term evolution of delayed ettringite ﬂow and compressive strength properties of aluminosil- and gypsum in Portland cement mortars under sulfate erosion. icate based ﬂowable geopolymer concrete using taguchi Construction and Building Materials. 2009;23(2):812–6. doi:10. method. Silicon. 2020;12(3):595–602. doi:10.1007/s12633- 1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.03.002. 01900166-w. 49. Shariﬁ Y, Visrudi HN. Hydrochloric acid resistance of mortars
Aksogan O. Durability of concrete made with natural granular incorporating waste glass powder as cementitious mate- granite, silica sand and powders of waste marble and basalt rials. Structural Concrete. 2024;25(1):303–19. doi:10.1002/ as ﬁne aggregate. Journal of Building Engineering. 2018;19. suco.202300303. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2018.04.022. 50. Thokchom S, Ghosh P, Ghosh S. Resistance of ﬂy ash based
Park H, Jeong Y, Jun Y, Jeong JH, Oh JE. Strength geopolymer mortars in sulfuric acid. ARPN J. Eng Appl Sci. enhancement and pore-size reﬁnement in clinker-free CaO- 2009;4(1):65–70. activated GGBFS systems through substitution with gypsum. 51. Chang JJ, Yeih W, Hung CC. Eﬀects of gypsum and phosphoric Cement and Concrete Composites. 2016;68:57–65. doi:10.1016/ acid on the properties of sodium silicate-based alkaliactivated j.cemconcomp.2016.02.008. slag pastes. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2005;27(1):85–
Amarender R, Rayana H. Study on the molarity ef- 91. doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2003.12.001. fect of sodium hydroxide on geopolymer concrete in- 52. Nematollahi B, Qiu J, Yang EH, Sanjayan J. Microscale corporating nanosilica. Journal of Physics: Conference Se- investigation of ﬁber-matrix interface properties of strain- ries. 2024;2779(1):12040. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2779/1/ hardening geopolymer composite. Ceramics International. 012040. 2017;43(17):15616–25. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.08.
Sturm P, Gluth GJG, Jäger C, Brouwers HJH, Kühne HC. 118. Sulfuric acid resistance of one-part alkali-activated mortars. 53. Williams RP, van Riessen A. Development of alkali activated Cement and Concrete Research. 2018;109:54–63. doi:10.1016/ borosilicate inorganic polymers (AABSIP). Journal of the Eu- j.cemconres.2018.04.009. ropean Ceramic Society. 2011;31(8):1513–6. doi:10.1016/j.
Aygörmez Y, Canpolat O. Long-term sulfuric and hydrochloric jeurceramsoc.2011.02.021. acid resistance of silica fume and colemanite waste reinforced 54. Sata V, Sathonsaowaphak A, Chindaprasirt P. Resistance of metakaolin-based geopolymers. Revista de La Construcción. lignite bottom ash geopolymer mortar to sulfate and sulfuric 2021;20(2):291–307. doi:10.7764/RDLC.20.2.291. acid attack. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2012;34(5):700–
Vafaei M, Allahverdi A, Dong P, Bassim N, Mahinroosta M. 8. doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.01.010. Resistance of red clay brick waste/phosphorus slag-based 55. Song XJ, Marosszeky M, Brungs M, Munn R. Durability of ﬂy geopolymer mortar to acid solutions of mild concentration. ash based geopolymer concrete against sulphuric acid attack. Journal of Building Engineering. 2021;34:102066. doi:10.1016/ International Conference on Durability of Building Materials and j.jobe.2020.102066. Components. 2005;10.
Kwasny J, Aiken TA, Soutsos MN, McIntosh JA, Cleland DJ. 56. Aygörmez Y, Canpolat O, Al-mashhadani MM. Assessment of Sulfate and acid resistance of lithomarge-based geopolymer geopolymer composites durability at one year age. Journal mortars. Construction and Building Materials. 2018;166:537– of Building Engineering. 2020;32:101453. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.129. 2020.101453.

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[23] Jithendra C, Elavenil S. Inﬂuences of parameters on slump 48. Chen J, Jiang M. Long-term evolution of delayed ettringite ﬂow and compressive strength properties of aluminosil- and gypsum in Portland cement mortars under sulfate erosion. icate based ﬂowable geopolymer concrete using taguchi Construction and Building Materials. 2009;23(2):812–6. doi:10. method. Silicon. 2020;12(3):595–602. doi:10.1007/s12633- 1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.03.002. 01900166-w. 49. Shariﬁ Y, Visrudi HN. Hydrochloric acid resistance of mortars

[24] Aksogan O. Durability of concrete made with natural granular incorporating waste glass powder as cementitious mate- granite, silica sand and powders of waste marble and basalt rials. Structural Concrete. 2024;25(1):303–19. doi:10.1002/ as ﬁne aggregate. Journal of Building Engineering. 2018;19. suco.202300303. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2018.04.022. 50. Thokchom S, Ghosh P, Ghosh S. Resistance of ﬂy ash based

[25] Park H, Jeong Y, Jun Y, Jeong JH, Oh JE. Strength geopolymer mortars in sulfuric acid. ARPN J. Eng Appl Sci. enhancement and pore-size reﬁnement in clinker-free CaO- 2009;4(1):65–70. activated GGBFS systems through substitution with gypsum. 51. Chang JJ, Yeih W, Hung CC. Eﬀects of gypsum and phosphoric Cement and Concrete Composites. 2016;68:57–65. doi:10.1016/ acid on the properties of sodium silicate-based alkaliactivated j.cemconcomp.2016.02.008. slag pastes. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2005;27(1):85–

[26] Amarender R, Rayana H. Study on the molarity ef- 91. doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2003.12.001. fect of sodium hydroxide on geopolymer concrete in- 52. Nematollahi B, Qiu J, Yang EH, Sanjayan J. Microscale corporating nanosilica. Journal of Physics: Conference Se- investigation of ﬁber-matrix interface properties of strain- ries. 2024;2779(1):12040. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2779/1/ hardening geopolymer composite. Ceramics International. 012040. 2017;43(17):15616–25. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.08.

[27] Sturm P, Gluth GJG, Jäger C, Brouwers HJH, Kühne HC. 118. Sulfuric acid resistance of one-part alkali-activated mortars. 53. Williams RP, van Riessen A. Development of alkali activated Cement and Concrete Research. 2018;109:54–63. doi:10.1016/ borosilicate inorganic polymers (AABSIP). Journal of the Eu- j.cemconres.2018.04.009. ropean Ceramic Society. 2011;31(8):1513–6. doi:10.1016/j.

[28] Aygörmez Y, Canpolat O. Long-term sulfuric and hydrochloric jeurceramsoc.2011.02.021. acid resistance of silica fume and colemanite waste reinforced 54. Sata V, Sathonsaowaphak A, Chindaprasirt P. Resistance of metakaolin-based geopolymers. Revista de La Construcción. lignite bottom ash geopolymer mortar to sulfate and sulfuric 2021;20(2):291–307. doi:10.7764/RDLC.20.2.291. acid attack. Cement and Concrete Composites. 2012;34(5):700–

[29] Vafaei M, Allahverdi A, Dong P, Bassim N, Mahinroosta M. 8. doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.01.010. Resistance of red clay brick waste/phosphorus slag-based 55. Song XJ, Marosszeky M, Brungs M, Munn R. Durability of ﬂy geopolymer mortar to acid solutions of mild concentration. ash based geopolymer concrete against sulphuric acid attack. Journal of Building Engineering. 2021;34:102066. doi:10.1016/ International Conference on Durability of Building Materials and j.jobe.2020.102066. Components. 2005;10.

[30] Kwasny J, Aiken TA, Soutsos MN, McIntosh JA, Cleland DJ. 56. Aygörmez Y, Canpolat O, Al-mashhadani MM. Assessment of Sulfate and acid resistance of lithomarge-based geopolymer geopolymer composites durability at one year age. Journal mortars. Construction and Building Materials. 2018;166:537– of Building Engineering. 2020;32:101453. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.

[31] doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.129. 2020.101453.

Published	1 January 2025
Version	v1
Access	Open Access

Published	1 January 2025
Version	v1
Access	Open Access

NaOH Molarity Effect on Mechanical and Hydrochloric Acid Resistance of Geopolymer Mortar Based on Slag

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NaOH Molarity Effect on Mechanical and Hydrochloric Acid Resistance of Geopolymer Mortar Based on Slag

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