Hydro energy and environmental policies inTurkey

Abstract

Keywords: Hydropower; Renewable energy; Clean Energy; Environmental Policies; Turkey

Introduction

Much of the world’s energy, however, is currently produced and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology were to remain constant and if overall quantities were to increase substantially. The need to control atmospheric 934

Research Article forthcoming at the desired pace. On the other hand, meeting energy demand is of high importance in Turkey. Nevertheless, exploiting the country’s large energy efficiency potential is also vital. Air pollution is a significant problem and, as the government’s projections show, carbon emissions could rise sharply if current trends continue [1, 8-10]. It is well known that the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) will play an important role in the development of Turkey’s energy and agriculture sector in the near future. For this reason, it is suitable to examine the general structure of this project and its effects. The GAP project is one of the largest power generating, irrigation, and development projects of its kind in the world, covering 3 million hectare of agricultural land. This is over 10% of the cultivable land in Turkey; the land to be irrigated is more than half of the presently irrigated area in Turkey. The GAP project on the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers encompasses 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric plants. Once completed, 27 billion kWh of electricity will be generated annually, which is 45% of the total economically exploitable hydroelectric potential [10]. On the other hand, as would be expected, the rapid expansion of energy production and consumption has brought with it a wide range of environmental issues at the local, regional and global levels. With respect to global environmental issues, Turkey’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have grown along with its energy consumption. States have played a leading role in protecting the environment by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be the one of the most efficient and effective solutions for clean and sustainable energy development in Turkey. Turkey’s geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of most of these renewable energy sources. In this reason, in the coming decades, global environmental issues could significantly affect patterns of energy use in Turkey.

for this projected growth. It will account for 112.8 bcm or 67% of total gas consumption in 2025. Industrial demand is the fastest growing market segment with gas expanding from 2.5–

Energy Policy And Energy Supply In Turkey

A demand prediction model, called ‘‘Model for Assessment of Energy Demand (MAED).” Based on the demand forecast from MAED, total final energy consumption grows at an average rate of 5.9% per year from 65.5 mtoe (2000) to 273.5 mtoe (2025). Average annual growth rates vary by sector, with industry having the highest rate at 7.6%, followed by the transportation sector with 5.0%. Between, 2000–2025, industrial consumption increases from 23.9 to 148.9 mtoe increasing its share from 36 to 54%. On the other hand, in terms of final energy by fuel, hard coal/coke increase their share slightly from 13–18%, lignite holds steady at 6%, electricity grows from 17–24%, oil products decline from 42–29% and natural gas increases from 7–17% between 2000 and 2025. The model also projects fuel mixes for each of the consumer groups or demand sectors [11, 12]. Total natural gas consumption is projected to increase at an annual rate of 9.6% from 15.0 to 169.4 billion m3 (bcm) over 2000–2025. Power sector gas demand is one of the main drivers

Energy Production And Consumption In Turkey

Turkey is an energy importing country; more than half of the energy requirement has been supplied by imports. Oil has the biggest share in total primary energy consumption. Due to the diversification efforts of energy sources, use of natural gas that was newly introduced into Turkish economy, has been growing rapidly. Turkey has large reserves of coal, particularly of lignite. The proven lignite reserves are 8.0 billion tons (Table 1). The estimated total possible reserves are 30 billion tons. Turkey, with its young population and growing energy demand per person, its fast growing urbanization, and its economic development, has been one of the fast growing power markets of the world for the last two decades (Figures 1 and 2). It is expected that the demand for electric energy in Turkey will be 300 billion kWh by the year 2010 and 580 billion kWh by the year 2020. Turkey’s electric energy demand is growing about 68% yearly due to fast economic growing [15, 19-25]. 935

Research Article Table 1 Primary energy reserves in the last decade in turkey [25] Energy sources Hard coal (Million ton) Lignite (Million ton) Elbistan Others Total Asphaltite Bitumes Hydropower GWh/yr MW/yr Petroleum (Million ton) Natural gas (Billion m3) Nuclear sources (ton) Uranium Thorium Geothermal (MW/yr) Electricity Thermal Solar energy Electricity Heat 100

Figure 1 Turkey’s primary energy production during 2000-2030 [26] 600 500 400 Mtoe

Coal and Lignite Oil Gas Com. Renewable & Wastes Nuclear Hydropower Geothermal Solar/Wind/Other Total primary energy consumption

Hydropower For Renewable And Clean Energy In Turkey

Renewable energy supply in Turkey is dominated by hydropower and biomass, but environmental and scarcity-ofsupply concerns have led to a decline in biomass use, mainly for residential heating. Total renewable energy supply declined from 1990 to 2004, due to a decrease in biomass supply. As a result, the composition of renewable energy supply has changed and wind power is beginning to claim market share. As a contributor of air pollution and deforestation, the share of

In Turkey, primary energy production and consumption has reached 28 and 98.3 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) respectively (Tables 2 and 3). The most significant developments in production are observed in hydropower, geothermal, solar energy and coal production. Turkey’s use of hydropower, geothermal and solar thermal energy has increased since 1990. However, the total share of renewable energy sources in total primary energy supply (TPES) has declined, owing to the declining use of non-commercial biomass and the growing role of natural gas in the system. Turkey has recently announced that it will reopen its nuclear programme in order to respond to the growing electricity demand while avoiding increasing dependence on energy imports [21, 23, 25]. Turkey’s demand for energy and electricity is increasing rapidly. Since 1990, energy consumption has increased at an annual average rate of 4.3%. As would be expected, the rapid expansion of energy production and consumption has brought with it a wide range of environmental issues at the local, regional and global levels [1, 11, 12, 15]. With respect to global environmental issues, Turkey’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have grown along with its energy consumption.

Coal and Lignite Oil Gas Com. Renewable & Wastes Nuclear Hydropower Geothermal Solar/Wind/Other Total production

Figure 2 Turkey’s primary energy consumption forecast 2000-2030 [26]

Table 2 Selected indicators of primary energy consumption and resources (thousands toe) [17, 25] Energy Sources Commercial Energy Hard coal Lignite Petroleum products Natural gas Hydraulic energy Renewable energy Non-commercial Energy Wood Biomass Total

2005 Realization Amount (%) 89 050 94.4 14 805 15.7 10 760 11.4 32 855 34.8 25 665 27.2 3 744 4.0 1 350 1.4 5 250 5.6 4 100 4.4 1 150 1.2 94 300 100

2006 Realization Amount (%) 93 680 94.7 15 052 15.2 11 005 11.1 35 160 35.6 27 356 27.7 3 801 3.8 1 427 1.4 5 200 5.3 4 100 4.1 1 100 1.1 98 880 100

2007 Realization Amount (%) 96 680 94.5 16 052 15.2 12 005 11.1 37 160 35.6 29 356 27.7 3 981 3.8 1 627 1.4 5 608 5.5 4 100 4.1 1 100 1.4 102 288 100

Table 3 Developments in production and consumption of energy [25] Primary energy production (TTOE) Primary energy consumption (TTOE) Consumption per capita (KOE) Electricity installed capacity (MW) Thermal (MW) Hydraulic (MW) Electricity production (GWh) Thermal (GWh) Hydraulic (GWh) Electricity import (GWh) Electricity export (GWh) Total Consumption (GWh) Consumption per capita (kWh)

biomass in the renewable energy share is expected to decrease with the expansion of other renewable energy sources. Table 4 shows renewable energy supply and projections for future in Turkey [21, 23, 25]. Turkey is to be the recipient of a us$ 202 million renewable energy loan provided by the world bank to be disbursed as loans via financial intermediaries to interested investors in building renewable energy sourced electricity generation [21]. These loans are expected to finance 30-40% of associated capital costs. The aim of the renewable energy program is to increase privately owned and operated power generation from renewable sources within a market-based framework, which is being implemented in accordance with the electricity market law and the electricity sector reform strategy [16]. This program will assist the directorate of the ministry of energy and natural resources (menr) in the preparation of a renewable energy law,

as well as to define the required changes and modifications related to legislation such as the electricity market law to better accommodate greater private sector involvement [23, 25]. The hydropower industry is closely linked to both water management and renewable energy production, and so has a unique role to play in contributing to sustainable development in a world where billions of people lack access to safe drinking water and adequate energy supplies. On the other hand, approximately 1.6 billion people have no access to electricity and about 1.1 billion are without adequate water supply. However, resources for hydropower development are widely spread around the world. Potential exists in about 150 countries and about 70% of the economically feasible potential remains to be developed-mostly in developing countries where the needs are most urgent [1, 4-7].

Research Article Table 4 Renewable energy supply in turkey [21, 25] Renewable energy sources

2000 2005 Primary energy supply Hydropower (ktoe) 2 656 4 067 Geothermal, solar and wind (ktoe) 978 1 683 Biomass and waste (ktoe) 6 457 5 325 Renewable energy production (ktoe) 10 091 11 074 Share of total domestic production (%) 38 48 Share of TPES (%) 12 12 Generation Hydropower (GWh) 30 879 47 287 Geothermal, solar and wind (GWh) 109 490 Renewable energy generation (GWh) 30 988 47 777 Share of total generation (%) 25 29 Total final consumption Geothermal, solar and wind (ktoe) 910 1 385 Biomass and waste (ktoe) 6 457 5 325 Renewable total consumption (ktoe) 7 367 6 710 Share of total final consumption (%) 12 10

The total gross hydropower potential and total energy production capacity of Turkey are nearly 50 GW and 112 TWh/yr, respectively and about 30% of the total gross potential may be economically exploitable. At present, only about 35% of the total hydroelectric power potential is in operation [27]. The national development plan aims to harvest all of the hydroelectric potential by 2010. The contribution of small hydroelectric plants to total electricity generation is estimated to be 5-10% [28, 29]. On the other hand, the Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) is one of the largest power generating, irrigation, and development projects of its kind in the world, covering 3.0 million ha of agricultural land [30]. This is over 10 % of the cultivable land in Turkey; the land to be irrigated is more than half of the presently irrigated are in Turkey. The GAP project on the Euphrates and Tıgris Rivers encompasses 22 dams and 19 hydroelectric power plants. Once completed, 27 billion kWh of electricity will be generated and irrigating 1.7 million hectares [24, 27, 30-32].

energy options and global water governance involving all stakeholders in a participatory decision-making process. In adopting their own sustainability guidelines, the members of the International Hydropower Association are committed to developing and operating their projects, in collaboration with all stakeholders, in a way that is environmentally friendly, socially responsible and economically efficient so that hydropower projects can make a major contribution to achieving sustainable energy and resource development. It is fundamental to complete the projects, in particular the hydroelectricity power plant projects, covered by the public investment program with the lowest costs and in the fastest manner. For this reason, emphasis will be given to ensure that investment costs reflect the true cost, cross financing among sectors are avoided and cost increases that could arise as a result of delays in projects are prevented. Before the construction of a nuclear power plant, detailed plans and programs on storage, elimination of wastes and informing the public will be prepared by considering maximum harmony with the free market.

Conclusions

The environmental impacts of hydro plants are minimal compared with alternative resources. They make use of our renewable "green energy" resource, without causing pollution and CO2 emission. They have considerable advantages, since they use the renewable sources of the country, are free of fuel costs, and their design and Turkish engineers and contractors can perform construction. They are also easily adaptable to the system load demands. There is no single solution to the world’s quest for more, cleaner energy and effective water management. Energy and water for sustainable development depend not only on supply choices, but also on how these choices are implemented. It requires the creation of a level playing field among available

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